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RALPH S. LILLIE
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60 Synthesis in Biology
the present condition. We may describe our problem, then, as
the problem of the factors underlying the synthesis of a highly
special process, that by which the diffusely distributed nonliving materials and energies of nature are brought together in a
special kind of unification and transformed into a living organism.
The naturalist is interested in the question: how far are scientific methods competent to give a true account of the factors
underlying the origin of the living world and its evolutionary
critical examination of the nature of scientific procedure, a somewhat special field of human activity which may be considered as a
sub-department of philosophical procedure, having the aim of
determining those methods of observation, thought and action
which have a proved reliability in the ascertainment of truth.
Probably most scientists would define truth as a body of con-
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R. S. Lillie 61
mathematical formulation. Ac
repeated occurrence of single
perhaps the most conspicuous f
existence of language shows-is
(or "subsistence") of a stable sy
determining conditions and fac
aims at giving an account.
But if we are realists we cann
particularity. An importan
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62 Synthesis in Biology
stable conditions; and these conditions, having once arisen, may
then by virtue of their persistence impart a common character
to an indefinite number of subsequent single events. In such a
case the constant or generic character has its origin in individual
later synthesis. The relations between individuation and synthesis are seen to be intimate and reciprocal.
Science is usually regarded as nothing if not logical; and in fact
logic (which may be unconscious) forms an essential part of its
procedure. The scientific world is a law-abiding world; the aim
of the scientist is to discover the laws of nature, and the essence
of a law is its constancy. Scientific laws when given numerical
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R. S. Lillie 63
naturalist to observation; certain constant properties of everything that is extended in space or time, as well as of the extended
they are always present, form the basis for a large part of extra-
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64
Synthesis in Biology
polation, including prediction, which assumes the stable continuance of present conditions in the future. Purely spatial
characters would thus correspond to static constants of the most
physical basis of which is synthetic chemical action. Such considerations show that biological constants are based on a complex
sequence or hierarchy of interdependent physical constants; they
are derived or composite constants; nevertheless, in their property
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R. S. Lillie 65
seem more scientific to describe such an organism as a psychophysical system rather than a purely physical system. Psychol-
they may have physical criteria which are the special concern of
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66 Synthesis in Biology
the living part of nature is regarded as having evolved. It is
easy to lose oneself in detail; the existing detail, however, has
arisen in a nature having certain definite permanent characters.
Living organisms represent detail of a highly special kind; they
are products of a prolonged evolution, apparently confined to
problem of synthesis and we ask again the question: how far can
scientific method aid us in solving such a problem of synthesis or
the factors of orderly integration in natural process. These factors are demonstrably physical in part. Observation shows the
living germ collecting material and energy from its surroundings,
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R. S. Lillie 67
and from these and their transformations
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68 Synthesis in Biology
would be required.
The phrase, the place of life in nature, may stand as defining
the fundamental problem of biology; an alternative expression
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R. S. Lillie
69
which are just as truly facts as are the purely fortuitous events
activity has its own individual or internal factors of determination, as distinguished from the external or environmental factors;
and the contrast of the vital with the casual seems to be somehow
connected with this fact of individuation and inner determina-
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70 Synthesis in Biology
separation of physical and psychical is not possible to a comprehensive theoretical biology. Such a separation is a feat of the
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R. S. Lillie 71
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