Welcome to FHWA-NHI-132089 Earthwork Series: Earth Materials as Engineering

Materials.
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Image description: Soil index.

This training is an overview of the basic properties of earth materials or soil and
their engineering properties as they relate to construction. Soil is the product of
mechanical and chemical weathering of rocks. Most naturally occurring soils consist
of a mixture of assorted grains of different sizes and shapes.
At the end of this module, you will be able to:
Identify the components and types of soil;
Identify the soil characteristics that effect engineering performance;
Recognize the differences between description and classification of soil;
Explain the processes of soil verification; and
Recognize preliminary inspector responsibilities as a part of contract specifications.
This module will take approximately 75 minutes to complete.

This training contains five lessons:

Lesson 1: Components and Types of Soil;
Lesson 2: Soil Description and Classification;
Lesson 3: Engineering Characteristics;
Lesson 4: The Process of Material Verification; and
Lesson 5: Preliminary Inspector Responsibilities.
During each lesson, we will provide knowledge checks, which you may wish to take
in order to test your understanding of the material presented in the lesson. The
knowledge checks are optional.

Our first lesson is about components and types of soil. By the end of this lesson,
you will be able to:
Explain what is soil and its components;
Recognize organic soils;
Explain soil as a construction material; and
Recall basic soil types.
This lesson will take approximately 20 minutes to complete.

The first thing to realize about soil that makes it unique among construction
materials is that soils are a naturally occurring material are abundant and vary
greatly. Soils result from the degradation of rock and organics. The three
components of soil are solid, water and air.
Lets take a moment for a question. What is Soil? Select the Answer button to view
the response.
Image description: Soil samples and water.

The first thing to realize about soil that makes it unique among construction
materials is that soils are a naturally occurring material are abundant and vary
greatly. Soils result from the degradation of rock and organics. The three
components of soil are solid, water and air.
Lets take a moment for a question. What is Soil? Select the Answer button to view
the response.
Image description: Soil samples and water.

Natural soil is a mixture of mineral particles, water, and air resulting from natural
processes such as weathering, decay, and chemical action that can be separated
by gentle mechanical means. Soil can also be produced by the use of mechanical
means, and contain material not exposed to natural processes.

ASTM D653 defines soil as sediment or other unconsolidated particles that are the
result of physical and/or chemical disintegration of rocks. Soil may or may not
contain organic material.
Image description: ASTM logo.

Any soil that contains a sufficient amount of organic matter to influence the
engineering properties is called organic soil. The organic matter of organic soils
results from the natural decay of plant and animal life. In contrast to other mineral
particles (hard grains of natural minerals) found in soils, the actual organic particles
and matter are compressible, lighter in mass and often weaker than mineral
particles.
As a result, organic soils:
Have a lower density than other mineral soils;
May have a low shear strength;
May be highly compressible;
Can be very difficult to compact; and
May continue to degrade over time.

Why is soil important for earthwork?

Earth material such as soil and rock form the foundation on which we build virtually
everything. These materials also represent some of the oldest and most common
construction materials used over the centuries. When soil is used as a structural fill
material, the soil must be properly placed and compacted in a manner that will
support the loads placed upon it. It is beneficial for construction inspectors to
become acquainted with some of the soil basics in order to meet and enforce soil
requirements on construction projects.
Lets take a moment for another question. How do you determine grain size? Select
the Answer button to view the response.

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Why is soil important for earthwork?

Earth material such as soil and rock form the foundation on which we build virtually
everything. These materials also represent some of the oldest and most common
construction materials used over the centuries. When soil is used as a structural fill
material, the soil must be properly placed and compacted in a manner that will
support the loads placed upon it. It is beneficial for construction inspectors to
become acquainted with some of the soil basics in order to meet and enforce soil
requirements on construction projects.
Lets take a moment for another question. How do you determine grain size? Select
the Answer button to view the response.

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A sieve is a device that is used to determine grain sizes. Each sieve has a mesh
screen that is used to measure aggregate. The higher the number on a sieve, the
smaller the holes in its screen. For example, the #4 sieve has 4 openings per linear
inch of sieve, thus its called the #4 sieve. The #8 sieve has 8 openings per linear
inch and so on.
Image 1 description: Sieve.
Image 2 description: Sieve size chart.

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Basic soil types can be identified by their relative grain sizes. Granular soils can
often be easily identified by the naked eye. However, the grains of silt- and claysize particles are not discernable by the unaided eye. Although the relative grain
size for silts and clays are provided, fine-grained soils (silts and clays) are more
commonly indentified by their behavioral properties with water, which is discussed
later.
Select each picture to learn basic soil types as identified by their grain size.
Image description: Collage of soil types.

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Basic soil types can be identified by their relative grain sizes. Granular soils can
often be easily identified by the naked eye. However, the grains of silt- and claysize particles are not discernable by the unaided eye. Although the relative grain
size for silts and clays are provided, fine-grained soils (silts and clays) are more
commonly indentified by their behavioral properties with water, which is discussed
later.
Select each picture to learn basic soil types as identified by their grain size.
Image description: Collage of soil types.

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Boulder has grain size 12.

Image description: Boulder soil sample.

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Cobble has grain size between 3 to 12.

Image description: Cobble soil sample.

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Gravel has grain size of 0.079 to 3.

Image description: Gravel soil sample.

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Sand has grain size of 0.003 to 0.079.

Image description: Sand soil sample.

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Silt has grain size of 0.00008 to 0.003.

Image description: Silt soil sample.

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Clay has grain size of < 0.00008.

Image description: Clay soil sample.

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True or false. Soil is a mixture of mineral particles, water, and air resulting from
natural processes such as weathering, decay, and chemical action that can be
separated by gentle mechanical means.

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The correct answer is True. Natural soil is a mixture of mineral particles, water, and
air resulting from natural processes such as weathering, decay, and chemical action
that can be separated by gentle mechanical means. Soil can also be produced by
the use of mechanical means, and contain material not exposed to natural
processes.

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Organic soil has which of the following properties? Select all that apply.
a) Low shear strength;
b) Highly compressible;
c) Difficult to compact; or
d) All of the above.

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The correct answer is d) All of the above.

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Match soil terminology with appropriate grain size.

Soil terminology:
Boulder;
Cobble;
Gravel;
Sand;
Silt; and
Clay.
Grain size:
a) 0.00008 to 0.003;
b) 3 to 12;
c) < 0.00008;
d) 0.079 to 3;
e) 12; and
f) 0
0.003
003 tto 0
0.079.
079

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Boulder has grain size of e) 12;

Cobble has grain size of b) 3 to 12;
Gravel has grain size of d) 0.079 to 3;
Sand has grain size of f) 0.003 to 0.079;
Silt has grain size of a) 0.00008 to 0.003; and
Clay has grain size of c) < 0.00008.

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This is the end of lesson 1.

In this lesson, you have learned how to:
Explain what is soil and its components;
Recognize organic soils;
Explain soil as a construction material; and
Recall basic soil types.

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Now let's get started with Lesson 2: Soil Description and Classification
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
Describe differences in common soil types;
Identify soil classifications methods;
Recognize the difference between soil description and classification; and
Explain
Explain the importance of visual description methods
methods.
This lesson will take approximately 15 minutes to complete.

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Classification of soil can be regarded as a rating of different soils based on certain

qualities and potential behaviors of the material, which is a significant prerequisite
for construction. In soil mechanics the classification system divides the material into
groups according to certain standards such as physical properties, texture, or field
performance.
There are many soil classification methods developed by different organizations that
are best suited for that organizations need and use
use. These organizations include the
Federal Aviation Administration, the Army Corps of Engineers, the American Society
of Testing and Materials and the American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials.

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The ASTM classification system is the most widely used. It is also known as the
Unified Soil Classification System (USCS). This system uses texture and grain-size
characteristics of the soil.
Soils are classified into 15 groups, and each group is designated by two letters.
These letters are abbreviations of certain soil characteristics as follows:
G is gravel;
S is sand;
M is silt;
C is clay;
O is organic;
W is well graded;
P is poorly graded;
L is low plasticity;
H is high plasticity; and
PT is peat.
The major divisions, group symbols, and group names are shown in the table.
Image description: ASTM classification.

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Several states use the AASHTO method for determining soil classification.
Using the AASHTO Classification method, there are basically two major categories
of soil: Granular soils and Silt / Clay soils.
Granular soils have less than 35% of fines material. Where as, Silts and Clays have
greater than 35% of fines.
Granular and silts are further divided based on its plasticity and gradation.

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Now lets talk about cohesionless soils. Granular soils are those containing high
percentages of sand, gravel, cobbles, or mixtures of them. Fine sand is an
exception because its engineering properties are on the borderline between the
granular and the fine-grained soils.
A granular soil has the following significant engineering properties:
It is generally excellent foundation material for supporting structures and roads.
The bearing capacity is large and the settlement is small
small. Settlement occurs quickly;
It is the best material for embankment, because it has high shear strength. It is
easy to compact and it is not susceptible to frost action;
It is the best backfill material for retaining walls due to good drainage and low
lateral pressure;
It is very permeable; and
May be susceptible to frost heave

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The picture shown illustrates distribution curves for various types of soil. The shape
of the curve indicates the soil grading or particle sizes contained in the material. The
shape of soil particles contributes to the mechanical behavior of the material and
also influences how dense the material can be packed together.
Image description: Grain-size distribution curves for various soils.

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Soil specialists have used several methods to classify soils. As an Inspector, you should familiarize yourself with the AASHTO classification summarized in the table
shown. It is based primarily on gradation analyses and soil constants.
The AASHTO classification system divides materials into seven major groups -- designated as A-1, A-2, A-3, A-4, A-5, A-6, and A-7 Generally, the best soils for
embankments are classified as A-1, the next best as A-2, and so on with the poorest being those soils in the A-7 group.
Granular Materials
Group A-1 is usually material that is a well graded mixture of coarse particles. They may or may not have soil binders fine particle soils like clay. Soils in Group A-1 are
the best embankment material. They have stable load carrying capacities regardless of their moisture contents. However, if completely saturated, coarse granular
materials can be unstable if they are not confined.
Group A-2 includes a variety of granular materials, which are borderline between Groups A-1 and A-3, and silt clay materials. These materials are stable when dry but
may be subject to frost damage. Soil binders in Group A-2 are inferior to those in Group A-1. But A-2 soils generally can be used for blanketing plastic subgrades of
some silty or clayey materials to prevent moisture (capillary water) from creeping all the way up to the pavement coarse.
Group A-3 consists of sands with limited coarse materials or soil binders. Examples of this group are fine desert sand, fine beach sand and stream deposited sand.
These soils make suitable subgrades when confined and damp, but are subject to erosion. They can be compacted by vibratory, pneumatic tired and steel wheel
rollers, but not with sheepsfoot rollers.

Silty Clay Materials

Group A-4 consists of common, silty soils with textures varying from sandy loams to silty and clayey loams. These soils have an affinity for water and will swell and lose
considerable stability unless properly compacted and drained. Silty loams are often difficult to compact. pneumatic rollers usually are needed for proper compaction.
Careful field control of moisture content is needed. Silty loams are a mixture of sand, silt, clay and organic matter and are commonly referred to as topsoil. Topsoil
should not be used in the roadbed. Instead, it should be used as a grass growing medium on slopes and ditch areas.
Image description of soil classification chart:
Group A-5 is similar to A-4, but the soils are more elastic with a high liquid limit.
Group A-6 consists of soils which usually have high volume changes between wet and dry states. If moisture content is properly controlled, they will compact readily
under a sheepsfoot roller or a traffic roller. These soils will compress when wet and shrink and swell with changes in moisture content. A-6 soils do not drain readily.
Group A-7 is similar to A-6, except that the soils may be elastic as well as subject to quite high volume changes. Soils in Group A-7 are composed mainly of clay and
are not preferred as embankment materials.

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Atterberg Limits are used to obtain information used to estimate strength and
settlement characteristics of the soil. They are: Shrinkage Limit (SL); Liquid Limit
(LL); Plastic Limit (PL); and Plastic Index (PI).
AtterbergLimitsareabasicmeasureofthenatureofafinegrainedsoil.Dependingon
contentofthesoil,itmayappearinfourstates:solid,semisolid,plasticandliquid.Ineach
state,consistencyandbehaviorofasoilisdifferentandthussoareitsengineering
properties.
properties
These tests are performed on the fraction of the soil that passes the #40 sieve.
Image description: Physical state scale (Atterberg Limit Scale) ranging from left to
right: solid, semisolid, plastic and liquid.

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Atterberg Limits are used to obtain information used to estimate strength and
settlement characteristics of the soil. They are: Shrinkage Limit (SL); Liquid Limit
(LL); Plastic Limit (PL); and Plastic Index (PI).
Atterberg Limits are a basic measure of the nature of a fine-grained soil. Depending
on content of the soil, it may appear in four states: solid, semi-solid, plastic and
liquid. In each state, consistency and behavior of a soil is different and thus so are
its engineering properties.
properties
These tests are performed on the fraction of the soil that passes the #40 sieve.
Image description: Physical state scale (Atterberg Limit Scale) ranging from left to
right: solid, semisolid, plastic and liquid.

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ShrinkageLimit(SL)isthewatercontentwherefurtherlossofmoisturewillnotresultin
anymorevolumereduction.Theshrinkagelimitismuchlesscommonlyusedthanthe
liquidlimitandtheplasticlimit.
Image description: Atterberg chart.

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Inordertodeterminetheplasticityindex,theplasticlimit(PL)mustbeobtained.Plastic
limitistheminimummoisturecontentatwhichthesoilactsasaplasticsolid.
Torunthistest,asmallsoilwatermixture(soilparticlespassingNo.40)isrolledoutwith
thepalmofthehandonaglassplateuntilathreadofsoilisformed.Whenthethreadis
rolledtoadiameterofofaninch,itisballedupandrolledoutagain.Themixture
graduallylosesmoistureintheprocess.Finallythesampledriesouttoanextentthatit
becomes brittle and will no longer hold together in a continuous thread This moisture
becomesbrittleandwillnolongerholdtogetherinacontinuousthread.Thismoisture
contentistheplasticlimit.
Image 1 description: Atterberg chart.
Image 2 description: Test tools.

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Liquidlimit(LL)isthemoisturecontentabovewhichasoilreadilybecomesaliquid.In
general,thehighertheliquidlimit,themorecompressiblethesoilmaybeandthemore
volumechangesmayoccur.
Thistestisrunbylaboratorypersonnelandbasicallyconsistsofplacingasmallamount
(250grams)ofsoilpassingtheNumber40sieveandmixingwithwatertoapaste
consistency.Itisthenplacedinaroundbottomedbrasscupandthesurfaceisstruckoff
level with a spatula The soil is next divided into two segments by means of a grooving tool
levelwithaspatula.Thesoilisnextdividedintotwosegmentsbymeansofagroovingtool.
Thecupisthenraisedanddroppedontoahardrubberblockcausingthedividedsoilto
flowtogether.Themoisturecontentatwhichittakes25blowstoclosethegrooveisthe
liquidlimit.
Image 1 description: Atterberg chart.
Image 2 description: Test tools.

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Plasticityindex(PI)isthenumericaldifferencebetweentheliquidlimitandtheplasticlimit.
Theplasticityindexisameasureofthecohesivepropertyofthesoil.Ingeneral,thehigher
thePI,thesofterthesoiltendstogetinwetweather.
Image description: Atterberg chart.

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True or false. Using the AASHTO Classification method, there are two major
categories of soil: Soils with less than 45% of fines material and soils greater than
45% of fines.

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The correct answer is false. Using the AASHTO Classification method, there are
basically two major categories of soil: Granular soils and Silt/Clay soils.
Granular soils have less than 35% of fines material. Whereas, Silts and Clays have
greater than 35% of fines.

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You have now completed lesson 2.

In this lesson, you have learned how to:
Describe differences in common soil types;
Identify soil classifications methods;
Recognize the difference between soil description and classification; and
Explain the importance of visual description methods.

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Now let's get started with Lesson 3: Engineering Characteristics.

At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
Recognize the engineering characteristics of soils;
Explain mass-volume relationships and water content as it relates to engineering
characteristics of soil;
Explain moisture-density relationships and their associated significance; and
Relate test and measurements and their significance to the engineering
characteristics of soils.
This lesson will take approximately 20 minutes to complete.

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Lets take a moment to review soil characterization when applying to engineering

practice. Select each tab to review.

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Lets take a moment to review soil characterization when applying to engineering

practice. Select each tab to review.

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Sands and gravels:

Generally are very good foundation materials;
Generally are very good embankment material;
Generally are the best backfill material for walls;
Might settle under vibratory loads or blasts;
May be difficult to dewater; and
Generally are not frost-susceptible.

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Fine-grained soils (inorganic clays):

Generally are low shear strength;
Are plastic and compressible;
Can partially lose shear strength upon wetting and disturbance;
Can shrink upon drying and expand on wetting;
Are generally very poor material for embankments;
Can be practically impervious; and
In the case of clay slopes, prone to landslides.

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Fine-grained soils (inorganic silts):

Have relatively low shear strengths;
Have high capillarity and frost susceptibility;
Have relatively low permeability;
Have frost heave susceptibility; and
Are difficult to compact.

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Organic soils:
Reduce load carrying capacity of soils;
Increase compressibility considerably;
Frequently contain toxic gases that are released during excavation processes; and
Are not suitable as construction materials.

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Now lets review some practical aspects of soils, course-grained and fine-grained.
Select each one to learn more.

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Now lets review some practical aspects of soils, course-grained and fine-grained.
Select each one to learn more.

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Practical aspects of coarse-grained soils include:

The use of well-graded soils as backfill;
Their ability to be compacted to a dense state;
The use of uniformly graded soils as drainage materials; but
You should take care to avoid gap-graded soils for drain materials.

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Practical aspects of fine-grained soils include:

Greater compressibility;
Greater potential to shrink upon drying and swell upon wetting; and
Less permeability.

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All soils contain soil particles or solids and void space between those solid
particles. The void space may contain air, water or both. The amount of solids in
relation to the amount of void space in a soil has a significant effect on its
engineering characteristics. For instance, a soil that has very little void space
between the soil particles will have more surface-to-surface contact between soil
particles and will have less void space to compress under load, making it stronger
and stiffer than the same type of soil at a lower density that is, having less solids
and more void space for a given volume
volume. This is a fundamentally important
concept, and is the reason why compact and compaction control is necessary when
soil fill is used as a structural material.
We are now going to introduce the relationships of mass and volume for soils. To
do so, it is convenient to separate the components of soil using a phase diagram.
All soil can be considered to be made up of three components: soil particles (or
solids), water, and air.
Image description: Illustration of three soil composition: First of air, water, and
solids; Second of water and solids; and Third of Air and Solids.

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Cohesionless soil index properties are found by using tests that measure the size
and distribution of particles in the soil. The particle size distribution (sieve analysis)
is one of the most influential aggregate characteristics that can be used to
determine how the material will behave.
Image description: Soil index.

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The in-place density is a field measurement of the soil, while relative density is a
comparison of the measured field density to the maximum possible density of any
particular soil as determined in a laboratory.
The picture demonstrates in-place density being measured using a nuclear gage.
This value can be compared to the maximum dry density obtained from the Proctor
curve for the same soil to obtain the relative density.
Image description: Soil density test.

57

True or false. The two basic soil components are solids and water.

58

The correct answer is false. Soils act as fluids in place and are considered to have
three components: solids, water, and air.

59

You have now completed Lesson 3.

In this lesson, you have learned how to:
Recognize the engineering characteristics of soils;
Explain mass-volume relationships and water content as it relates to engineering
characteristics of soil;
Explain moisture-density relationships and their associated significance; and
Relate test and measurements and their significance to the engineering
characteristics of soils.

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You are now on Lesson 4: The Process of Material Verification.

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
Describe the importance of soil sampling; and
Describe the moisture-density relationship.
This lesson will take approximately 15 minutes to complete.
complete

61

The inspector may be asked to sample soils from source or borrow location and
submit them to a laboratory for geotechnical testing. It is important that the sample
is representative of the fill source material that will be used as structural fill. The
inspector should take a composite sample of the area to be tested. In other words,
several small samples should be taken from similar soils.
If there are striking differences in soils colors and characteristics, these should be
sampled and tested as their own soil types. Soils close in characteristics and in
general color maybe sampled as one soil type.
The inspector should verify with the laboratory that will perform the test how much
of a sample is necessary. Usually 50 to 100 pounds will be adequate. Properly label
g that is wired to the
the sample as to the place, time, date and tests required on a tag
sample container. Some labs will require you to submit some other type of
paperwork.
Image description: Soil sampling.

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It is not uncommon to find several types of soils on a site. Therefore, the use of a
separate Proctor test for each type of soils on the project is essential. As soils
change, so does the dry unit weight. The correct method of ensuring a quality
product is to read the soil description on the lab data and use the correct value for
the soil being tested.
Image description: Showing depth of soil for soil sampling.

63

Sampling and testing frequency as well as the office that performs soil analysis and
soil report formats vary from agency to agency.
Theinformationonthesoilsheetsisavisualpresentationofthesoilspresentalongthe
generalcenterlineoftheproposedroadsaswellastheSoilDesignfeaturesthatapplyto
theconstructionoftheroad.ThereportonthesoiltestingfromtheCentralLaboratory
providesfurtherinformation.Theinspectorshouldgetthisreportassoonaspossible.
Please contact your agency for a copy of this report since each State issues the
report differently.
Thereportincludesthestation,locationfromthecenterline,depthofthesample,liquid
limit,plasticlimit,plasticityindex,gravelcontent,sandcontent,siltcontent,claycontent,
Proctordensity,optimummoisturecontent,carboncontent,texturalclassification,AASHTO
andUSDAclassifications,color,andsieveanalysisforeachsoilsamplecollected.
Imagedescription:Satellitesoilmap.

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Here is an example of a Review Checklist for Material Sites.

Image description 1: Report spec checklist page 1.
Image description 2: Report spec checklist page 2.

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Here is an example of a Review Checklist for Material Sites.

Image description 1: Report spec checklist page 1.
Image description 2: Report spec checklist page 2.

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Image description: Report spec checklist page 1.

67

Image description: Report spec checklist page 2.

68

Exploration equipment that will allow direct observation and sampling of the
subsurface soil layers is most desirable for material site investigations. Equipment,
such as backhoes, dozers, or large diameter augers, is preferred for exploration
above the water table. Below the water table, SPT borings can be used. SPT
samples should be taken at 1.5 m (5 ft) intervals or at significant changes in strata.
Samples should be sent to lab for classification testing to verify field visual
identification. Groundwater level should be recorded. Observation wells should be
installed to monitor water levels where significant seasonal fluctuation is anticipated
anticipated.
Image description: Test pit.

69

Soil compaction is the process of soil, air and water being reduced in volume by
application of loads, such as rolling, tamping or vibration. This removes air without
changing the amount of water in the soil.
Compaction can increase the shear strength while decreasing the compressibility
and permeability of the soil. Four basic factors can effect compaction: soil type,
material gradation, water content, and compactive effort.
Image description: Sheepsfoot steel roller commonly used to compact the soil on a
construction project.

70

It is not uncommon to find several types of soils on a site. Therefore, the use of a
separate Proctor test for each type of soil on the project is essential. A moisturedensity relationship curve, also known as a Proctor curve, is needed for each soil
type. As soils change, so does the dry unit weight. Using the curve that makes the
test pass is not the correct method. The correct method for ensuring a quality
product is to read the soil description on the lab data and use the correct value for
the soil being tested.
Image description: Proctor curve graph.

71

In order to be able to compact soils enough to support the weight of traffic, the soil
must -- as you already know -- contain the proper amount of moisture. The "proper"
amount of water is called the "optimum moisture." The optimum moisture of each
type of soil that is encountered during construction is determined by laboratory
testing called a Proctor. The Proctor test was developed to determine the maximum
density and optimum moisture content for soil. As the optimum moisture is being
determined, the laboratory personnel can determine how dense the soil can be
made.
made
Many people perceive that maximum density represents the absolute highest
density that can be achieved for a given soil instead of the highest density that can
be achieved, given the arbitrary compactive effort in the Proctor test. It is necessary
to understand that it is quite possible to achieve greater than 100% maximum
density by applying greater compactive effort, although the relationship between
effort and density is not linear.
Image description: Moisture content vs. dry density graph.

72

The Proctor test is used to determine the maximum density and optimum moisture
of soils. Because these values are used to establish basic criteria for compaction
and acceptance of earthwork, the Proctor test is particularly critical. Two standard
Moisture-Density Curves are shown below.
Image description: Standard Moisture-Density Curves.

73

The amount of water in the material directly affects its density and stability. Very dry
soil becomes powdery and is difficult to compact. When the soil is too wet the water
interferes with the ability of the soil particles to pack close. The proper amount of
water, optimum moisture content, however, can act as an adhesive allowing the soil
particles to pack together and bond.
Image description: Moisture density particles.

74

Compactive effort is a measure of the mechanical energy applied to a soil to

achieve compaction. Typically, the greater the effort the denser the soil will become.
Compactors in the field are designed to use one or a combination of the following
types of compactive effort:
Static weight or pressure;
Kneading action or manipulation; and
Impact.
Impact
Select each link above to learn more.
Image description: Tractor.

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Compactive effort is a measure of the mechanical energy applied to a soil to

achieve compaction. Typically, the greater the effort the denser the soil will become.
Compactors in the field are designed to use one or a combination of the following
types of compactive effort:
Static weight or pressure;
Kneading action or manipulation; and
Impact.
Impact
Select each link above to learn more.
Image description: Tractor.

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Static Weight is when a round smooth steel drum roller is used over the newly
placed or disturbed earth. The weight of the drum presses the soil downward
causing the air to come up out of the soil making it more dense.

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Kneading action is when a roller has feet such as the one shown in the picture. The
feet cause a kneading action that allows more downward pressure at each foot
location and works the air from the soil.

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Impact effort is when a heavy object is dropped onto the soil.

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True or false. Soils close in characteristics and in general color maybe sampled as
one soil type.

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The correct answer is true. Soils close in characteristics and in general color maybe
sampled as one soil type.

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True or False. The Proctor curve test was developed to determine the minimum
density content for soil.

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The correct answer is false. The Proctor curve test was developed to determine the
maximum density and optimum moisture content for soil. As the optimum moisture
is being determined, the laboratory personnel can determine how dense the soil can
be made.

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You have now completed lesson 4.

You have learned how to:
Describe the importance of soil sampling; and
Describe the moisture-density relationship.

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You have reached the last lesson in this training. This is Lesson 5: Preliminary
Inspector Responsibilities.
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
Identify the processes of material verification before construction;
Identify the processes of material verification during construction; and
Identify common issues.
This lesson will take approximately 5 minutes to complete.

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It is important that the inspector and the lab work together in obtaining the
necessary samples needed before the project begins. The inspector will need this
information when the contractor begins working on the project. Additional samples
will be needed as the project goes along and as conditions change.
Image description: Inspectors on construction site.

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The following material verifications need to be made before the project begins:
Initial soil samples must be taken and sent to the lab;
Soils need to be classified;
Gradation of the soil to determine load bearing capabilities;
Atterberg limits testing to show the shrinkage limits, liquid limit, plastic limits and
plasticity index of the soils;
Proctors on all soil types to determine the optimum moisture content;
Soils need to be identified by classification and a description of where they are
found on the project site; and
Soils variations tests should be ran on soils that contain 1 or more different soils
types.

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Some common issues that the inspector may run into are:
Unanticipated water issues under the soils;
Frost in soils if work is being done during cold winter weather;
Unexpected settlement in and around structures or drainage areas;
Lateral displacement in wet or sloped areas; as well as
Many other unexpected soil performance issues.
The inspector needs to keep a constant lookout for changes in conditions and
occurrences that may lead to the materials being unstable or unsafe.

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Which of the following material verifications need to be made before the project
begins?
a) Initial soil samples must be taken and sent to the lab;
b) Soils need to be classified;
c) Gradation of the soil to determine load bearing capabilities;
d) Soils need to be identified by classification and a description of where they are
f
found
d on the
th project
j t site;
it or
e) All of the above.

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The correct answer is e) All of the above.

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Select all that apply. Which are some common issues that the inspector may
encounter?
a) Anticipated water issues under the soils;
b) Frost in soils if work is being done during cold winter weather;
c) Expected settlement in and around structures or drainage areas; and/or
d) Lateral displacement in wet or sloped areas.

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The correct answers are b) Frost in soils if work is being done during cold winter
weather; and d) Lateral displacement in wet or sloped areas.

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You have completed lesson 5.

You have learned how to:
Identify the processes of material verification before construction;
Identify the processes of material verification during construction; and
Identify common issues.

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You have completed FHWA-NHI-132089 Earth Materials as Engineering Materials.

You have learned how to:
Identify the components and types of soil;
Identify the soil characteristics that effect engineering performance;
Recognize the differences between description and classification of soil;
Recognize preliminary inspector responsibilities as a part of contract specifications;
and
Explain the processes of soil verification.
Continue to the next screen to complete this training.

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This concludes FHWA-NHI-132089 Earth Materials as Engineering Materials.

Please select this link to give us your feedback so that NHI may continually improve
this training.
When you have finished, return to this to print your certificate.
Hyperlink description: https://www.nhies.info/onlineeval.html?coursenumber=132089&sessionnumber=20110929

95

This concludes FHWA-NHI-132089 Earth Materials as Engineering Materials.

Please select this link to give us your feedback so that NHI may continually improve
this training.
When you have finished, return to this to print your certificate.
Hyperlink description: https://www.nhies.info/onlineeval.html?coursenumber=132089&sessionnumber=20110929

96