1.

List the characteristics of road transportation.

The Characteristics of Road Transport are briefly listed below:
Roads are used various types of road vehicles, like passenger cars, buses, trucks two
and three wheeled automobiles ,pedal cycles and animal drawn vehicles. But railway
tracks are used only by rail locomotives and wagons, water ways are used by only ships
and boats
Road transport requires a relatively small investment for the government. Motor
vehicles are much cheaper than carriers like rail locomotives and wagons, water and air
carriers and air carriers. Construction and maintenance of roads is also cheaper than
that of railway track, docks, harbors and airports.
Road transport completely offer a freedom to road users to transfer the vehicles from
one lane to another and to from one road to another according to the need and
convenience. This flexibility of changes in location, direction, speed and timings of
travel is not available to other modes of transport.
In particular for short distance travel, road transport saves time. Trains stop at junctions
and main stations for comparatively longer time.
Speed of movement is directly related with severity of accident. The road Safety
decreases with increase dispersion in speed. Road Transport is subjected to high degree
of accidents due to flexibility of movements offered to the user. Derailment of railway
locomotives and air planes and air crashes are not uncommon. They are in fact more
disastrous.
Road transport is the only means of transport offer itself to the whole community.
The Major defect of road is Traffic.

2.

Describe the scope and functions of transportation

The purpose of a transportation system is to coordinate the movement of people, goods and
vehicles in order to utilize routes most efficiently. When implemented, Transportation systems
seek to reduce transport costs and improve delivery times through effective timetabling and
route management. Periodic reevaluations and the development of alternative routes allow for
timely changes to the transportation system in order to maintain efficiency. Standard
transportation system will usually feature multiple timetables designed to inform the user of
where each vehicle in the fleet is expected to be at any given point in time. These timetables
are developed alongside an array of route plans designed to coordinate vehicle movements in
a way that prevents bottlenecks in any one location.

4. With neat sketches, explain different road patterns.

1. Rectangular/Block/Grid Pattern:
The rectangular/ block/ grid pattern is a plan where the streets and roads are in the form of
grids or blocks running perpendicularly into each other thus forming a grid or block. This
type of pattern is normally considered weak from the road safety point of view as the
vehicles meet at opposite directions at intersections. Usually the main road is wide which
passes through the center of the area and other roads connecting to it are narrow. This
pattern is sufficiently easier to construct and maintain.

2. Radial Pattern
In this type of pattern the network of roads is in the form of circles emanating from the
centre of the area. The paradigm of radial pattern can be found at the Federal B Area of
Karachi. This pattern may be further classified into two types depending on its layout.

3. Radial and Circular pattern

In this type of road pattern the main roads radiate from the central point and are connected
together by concentric roads that are also radiating outwardly.

4. Radial and Grid Pattern

It is a combination of radial and grid pattern. A radial network of roads radiate from the
center outwardly. The main radial streets are then interconnected by providing grid pattern
in between the main streets.

5. Hexagonal Pattern
This pattern is a network of roads that grow in such a manner in various directions forming
hexagons.

6. Linear Pattern
In this type of pattern the roads grow linearly in one direction possibly due to the presence
of some natural forces such as sea or ocean at one side of the city.

5. What is saturation system of road planning? How is it used to decide the best
proposed among several alternative proposals?
Saturation system of a road is a measure of how much demand it is experiencing compared to
its total capacity. In this system maximum road length is calculated for an area based on the
concept of attaining maximum utility per unit length of the road. This is also called as
maximum utility system.
Productivity Factors or units: The total agricultural and industrial products served by each road
system are worked out and the productivity served may be assigned appropriate values of utility
units per unit weight.
Optimum Road length: Based on the master plan the targeted road length is fixed for the
country on the basis of area or population and production or both. And the same may be taken
as a guide to decide the total length of the road system in each proposal.
6. Explain briefly various types of classification of road.
Different types of roads are explained below:
1) Expressways:
The purpose of expressways would be to cater for motility of large volumes of motor traffic
at high speeds. They as serve trips of medium and long length in between prominent
residential areas, industrial or business concentrations and the central business district. They
may be divided highways with high standards of geometric and full or partial control of
access.
2) National Highways:
These include main highways running throughout the distance and breadth of the country
connection major parts, highways of adjoining countries, State capitals, large commercial and
tourist centers etc.
3) State Highways:
These include main arterial routes of any state connecting district headquarters and major cities
in the state and connecting these with National Highways of the neighboring states
4) Arterial Streets:
This system of streets, together with expressways where they exist, serves as the key network
for through traffic flows. These roadways may generally be spaced under 1-5 km in hugely
developed central business places and at 8 km or maybe more in sparsely developed urban
fringes. The arterial streets are generally divided highways with full or partial access.
5) Collector Streets:
The function of collector streets should be to collect visitors from nearby streets and feed it for
the arterial and sub-arterial streets or vice versa. These may be located in residential neighbor
hoods, commercial areas and industrial areas usually, complete approach is granted on these
roadways from abutting properties. There are not car parking limitations apart from during the
peak hours.
6) Major District Roads:
They are essential roads with a district serving parts of production and markets, and linking
these together or while using the main highways

7) Local Streets:
These are intended mainly to supply use of abutting properly and normally will not carry
substantial amounts of traffic Majority of visits in urban areas originate from or terminate on
these roads Local streets could possibly be non-commercial, commercial or industrial,
depending on the predominant use of the nearby area. They permit unrestricted parking and
pedestrian movements
8) Village Roads:
These are roads joining villages or group of villages with each other and also to the nearest
road of any higher class.
8. Explain briefly the various factors governing the highway alignment.
We have seen the requirements of an alignment. But it is not always possible to satisfy all these
requirements. Hence we have to make a judicial choice considering all the factors.
The various factors that control the alignment are as follows:
a) Obligatory Points
b) Traffic
c) Geometric design
d) Economics
e) Other considerations
Obligatory points: These are the control points governing the highway alignment. These
points are classified into two categories.

(i) Obligatory points through which the road alignment has to pass may cause the
alignment to often deviate from the shortest or easiest path.
Some of the examples are:
Bridge site: The Bridge can be located only where the river has straight and permanent path
and also where the abutment and pier can be strongly founded. The road approach to the bridge
should not be curved and skew crossing should be avoided as possible. Thus to locate a bridge
the highway alignment may be changed.
Mountain: While the alignment passes through a mountain, the various alternatives are to either
construct a tunnel or to go round the hills. The suitability of the alternative depends on factors
like topography, site conditions and construction and operation cost.
Intermediate town: The alignment may be slightly deviated to connect an intermediate town
or village nearby.

(ii) Obligatory points through which the alignment should not pass are:
Religious places: These have been protected by the law from being acquired for any purpose.
Therefore, these points should be avoided while aligning.
Very costly structures: Acquiring such structures means heavy compensation which would
result in an increase in initial cost. So the alignment may be deviated not to pass through that
point.
Lakes/Ponds etc.: The presence of a lake or pond on the alignment path would also necessitate
deviation of the alignment.

Fig: Alignment avoiding lake.

(b) Traffic: The alignment should suit the traffic requirements. Based on the origin-destination
data of the area, the desire lines should be drawn. The new alignment should be drawn keeping
in view the desire lines, traffic flow pattern etc.
(c) Geometric design: Geometric design factors such as gradient, radius of curve, sight
distance etc. also govern the alignment of the highway. To keep the radius of curve minimum,
it may be required to change the alignment. The alignments should be finalized such that the
obstructions to visibility do not restrict the minimum requirements of sight distance. The design
standards vary with the class of road and the terrain and accordingly the highway should be
aligned.
(d) Economy: The alignment finalized should be economical. All the three costs i.e.
construction, maintenance, and operating cost should be minimum. The construction cost can
be decreased much if it is possible to maintain a balance between cutting and filling. Also try
to avoid very high embankments and very deep cuttings as the construction cost will be very
higher in these cases.
(e) Other considerations: Various other factors that govern the alignment are:
Drainage: Drainage of surface runoff water effects the alignment of roads.
Political: If a foreign territory comes across a straight alignment, we will have to deviate
the alignment around the foreign land.
Monotony: For a flat terrain it is possible to provide a straight alignment, but it will be
monotonous for driving. Hence a slight bend may be provided after a few kilometers of
straight road to keep the driver alert by breaking the monotony.
Hydrological (rainfall/water table)

9. Explain at least two objectives of providing:

i) Camber
Camber or cant is the cross slope provided to raise middle of the road surface in the transverse
direction to drain off rain water from road surface.
The objectives of providing camber are:
Surface protection especially for gravel and bituminous roads
Sub-grade protection by proper drainage
Quick drying of pavement which in turn increases safety

ii) Shoulders
A road shoulder is a strip of land immediately adjacent to the traffic lane of a road not bordered
by kerb & channel. The shoulder may be sealed in the case of highways and major roads, but
it is typically unsealed and of a lesser depth and perhaps constructed of inferior material than
the adjacent traffic lane.
Road shoulders are designed to:
1. Provide a factor of safety for road users who accidently leave or are forced to leave the
sealed pavement area, and
2. Protect the sealed pavement from excess deterioration.

10. What is an ideal alignment? Explain with neat sketches, how you will align through a
hill pass, a bridge site and Marshy land.
The ideals to be kept in view in the design of highways of all types are as follows:
1. It should be free from being submerges during floods and thus should be available for
safe movement of traffic at all times
2. It should be provided with easy gradient
3. It should contain intelligently erected traffic signs and should make sufficient
provisions for the safety of pedestrians and vehicles.
4. It should grant various amenities to road user; such as grass verges, sufficient lighting,
watering and fuelling places at regular intervals, shady avenues, parking facilities in
city areas etc.
5. It curves along of road should be properly designed and they should be free from blind
corners.
6. The formation of road, either natural or prepared, should be stable enough to carry the
foundation and traffic load.
7. The foundation depth should be adequate for effectively distributing traffic load over a
sufficient area of formation to keep the intensity of load within the safe permissible
limits of the soil.
8. The surface of road should be impervious and impermeable to rain water.
9. The width of road should be sufficient and camber or cross fall of surface should be
correct.
Alignment through hilly areas:
While the alignment passes through a mountain, the various alternatives are to either construct
a tunnel or to go round the hills. The suitability of the alternative depends on factors like
topography, site conditions and construction and operation cost.

Bridge site: The Bridge can be located only where the river has straight and permanent path
and also where the abutment and pier can be strongly founded. The road approach to the bridge
should not be curved and skew crossing should be avoided as possible. Thus to locate a bridge
the highway alignment may be changed.

12.

List the factor affecting SSD and OSD.

The factors affecting are as follows

Reaction time of the driver: Reaction time of a driver is the time taken from the instant
the object is visible to the driver to the instant when the brakes are applied. The total
reaction time may be split up into four components based on PIEV theory. In practice,
all these times are usually combined into a total perception- reaction time suitable for
design purposes as well as for easy measurement.
Speed of the vehicle: The speed of the vehicle very much affects the sight distance.
Higher the speed, more time will be required to stop the vehicle. Hence it is evident
that, as the speed increases, sight distance also increases.
Efficiency of brakes: The efficiency of the brakes depends upon the age of the vehicle,
vehicle characteristics etc. If the brake efficiency is 100%, the vehicle will stop the
moment the brakes are applied. But practically, it is not possible to achieve 100% brake
efficiency
Frictional resistance: The frictional resistance between the tire and road plays an
important role to bring the vehicle to stop. When the frictional resistance is more, the
vehicles stop immediately. Thus sight required will be less. No separate provision for
brake efficiency is provided while computing the sight distance
Gradient of the road: Gradient of the road also affects the sight distance. While
climbing up a gradient, the vehicle can stop immediately. Therefore sight distance
required is less.

13. List the object of providing:

i.

Super elevation
Super elevation in road design is defined as the rotation in the pavement during
an approach to and then through a horizontal curve. The main objective for
providing super elevation is:
1.
2.
3.

ii.

To counter-act the effect of centrifugal force and reduce the tendency of

vehicle to overturn
To skid laterally outwards, pavement outer edge is raised with respect to
inner edge.
To assist the driver by counteracting the lateral acceleration produced by
tracking the curve

Extra widening of pavement on horizontal curves.

Mechanical widening
The reasons for the mechanical widening are: When a vehicle negotiates a horizontal
curve, the rear wheels follow a path of shorter radius than the front wheels as shown in
figure. This phenomenon is called off tracking, and has the effect of increasing the
effective width of a road space required by the vehicle.
Psychological widening
Widening of pavements has to be done for some psychological reasons also. There is a
tendency for the drivers to drive close to the edges of the pavement on curves. Some
extra space is to be provided for more clearance for the crossing and overtaking
operations on curves
Widening = Mechanical widening + Psychological widening

19. Distinguish between bitumen and tar.

1. Tars are more susceptible to temperature changes than bitumen. Hot weather will soften a
tar surface more than a surface made with bitumen of the same viscosity, and it will
become more brittle at low temperatures than bitumen. In other words tar becomes brittle
in cold weather and the surface treated with tar is apt to bleed in hot weather if a little extra
quantity has been used. Tar is therefore considered unsuitable for locations with wide
temperature changes. Gritting or surface dressing can be delayed a little where bitumen
has been used but not with tar.
2. The weathering properties of bitumen are superior to those of tars. Generally greater
deterioration is produced in tar than in bitumen when exposed to equal weather conditions.
Bitumen have a better durability and resistance to weathering than tars.
3. Surface dressings with bitumen are more prone to failure by water displacement than those
made with tar. Tars generally adhere better than bitumen on wet aggregate.
4. Setting time for tars is more than that of bitumen and this property is useful in the
production of pre-coated aggregate which can be transported to large distances or kept
for some time before spreading.
5. Tars harden much quicker than bitumen.
6. Tars have higher specific gravity than bitumen and lower viscosity and these properties
give them greater penetrating power and which are more marked during summers. Higher
viscosities can generally be used with tars than with bitumen.
7. Bitumen have a tendency to stay at or just near the surface resulting in a rich and fat
surface.
8. Roads built of bitumen need constant traffic to be maintained in good order; otherwise the
surface will crack and reduce the life of the road.
9. Tars make harder surfaces (but such surfaces are brittle) than bitumen and should be
preferred for roads in areas where bullock carts or other hard tyre traffic predominates.
Bitumen make more elastic surfaces and are better suited for pneumatic traffic. Hardening
of bitumen is very gradual.
10. Tar is more suitable for dense fine grained surfaces and bitumen for more open surfaces.
11. Tar is cheaper than bitumen.
12. Road tars do not dissolve in a petroleum distillate such as petrol, kerosene, diesel oil. As
such tar carpets have proved to be good material for parking sites as it remains unaffected
by spillage of oil and petrol from automobiles.
20. Explain the desirable properties of good subgrade soil.
The supporting soil beneath pavement and its special under courses is called sub grade.
Undisturbed soil beneath the pavement is called natural sub grade. Compacted sub grade is the
soil compacted by controlled movement of heavy compactors.
The desirable properties of sub grade soil as a highway material are:
Stability
Incompressibility
Permanency of strength
Minimum changes in volume and stability under adverse conditions of weather and
ground water
Good drainage, and
Ease of compaction

21. Describe how the quality of toughness and hardness of aggregate is evaluated in the
lab.
Test for toughness and hardness:
Abrasion Test

Fig: Los Angeles Abrasion Test Setup

Abrasion test is carried out to test the hardness property of aggregates and to decide whether
they are suitable for different pavement construction works. Los Angeles abrasion test is a
preferred one for carrying out the hardness property and has been standardized in India (IS:
2386 part-IV).
The principle of Los Angeles abrasion test is to find the percentage wear due to relative rubbing
action between the aggregate and steel balls used as abrasive charge.
Los Angeles machine consists of circular drum of internal diameter 700 mm and length 520
mm mounted on horizontal axis enabling it to be rotated. An abrasive charge consisting of cast
iron spherical balls of 48 mm diameters and weight 340-445 g is placed in the cylinder along
with the aggregates. The number of the abrasive spheres varies according to the grading of the
sample. The quantity of aggregates to be used depends upon the gradation and usually ranges
from 5-10 kg. The cylinder is then locked and rotated at the speed of 30-33 rpm for a total of
500 -1000 revolutions depending upon the gradation of aggregates.
After specified revolutions, the material is sieved through 1.7 mm sieve and passed fraction is
expressed as percentage total weight of the sample. This value is called Los Angeles abrasion
value.
A maximum value of 40 percent is allowed for WBM base course in Indian conditions. For
bituminous concrete, a maximum value of 35 percent is specified.

Impact Test

Fig: Impact Test Setup

The aggregate impact test is carried out to evaluate the resistance to impact of aggregates.
Aggregates passing 12.5 mm sieve and retained on 10 mm sieve is filled in a cylindrical steel
cup of internal dia. 10.2 mm and depth 5 cm which is attached to a metal base of impact testing
machine. The material is filled in 3 layers where each layer is tamped for 25 numbers of blows
(see Fig-3). Metal hammer of weight 13.5 to 14 Kg is arranged to drop with a free fall of 38.0
cm by vertical guides and the test specimen is subjected to 15 numbers of blows. The crushed
aggregate is allowed to pass through 2.36 mm IS sieve. And the impact value is measured as
percentage of aggregates passing sieve (W2) to the total weight of the sample (W1).
Aggregate impact value = (W1/W2)*100
Aggregates to be used for wearing course, the impact value shouldnt exceed 30 percent. For
bituminous macadam the maximum permissible value is 35 percent. For Water bound
macadam base courses the maximum permissible value defined by IRC is 40 percent.

22. Explain how the CBR value of soil determined.

California Bearing Ratio Test
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test was developed by the California Division of Highway as
a method of classifying and evaluating soil-sub grade and base course materials for flexible
pavements. CBR test, an empirical test, has been used to determine the material properties for
pavement design.
In most cases, CBR decreases as the penetration increases. The ratio at 2.5 mm penetration is
used as the CBR. In some case, the ratio at 5 mm may be greater than that at 2.5 mm. If this
occurs, the ratio at 5 mm should be used. The CBR is a measure of resistance of a material to
penetration of standard plunger under controlled density and moisture conditions.

Test Procedure

The laboratory CBR apparatus consists of a mould 150 mm diameter with a base plate
and a collar, a loading frame and dial gauges for measuring the penetration values and
the expansion on soaking.
The specimen in the mould is soaked in water for four days and the swelling and water
absorption values are noted. The surcharge weight is placed on the top of the specimen
in the mould and the assembly is placed under the plunger of the loading frame.
Load is applied on the sample by a standard plunger with dia. of 50 mm at the rate of
1.25 mm/min. A load penetration curve is drawn. The load values on standard crushed
stones are 1370 kg and 2055 kg at 2.5 mm and 5.0 mm penetrations respectively.
CBR value is expressed as a percentage of the actual load causing the penetrations of
2.5 mm or 5.0 mm to the standard loads mentioned above. Therefore,

Two values of CBR will be obtained. If the value of 2.5 mm is greater than that of 5.0
mm penetration, the former is adopted. If the CBR value obtained from test at 5.0 mm
penetration is higher than that at 2.5 mm, then the test is to be repeated for checking. If
the check test again gives similar results, then higher value obtained at 5.0 mm
penetration is reported as the CBR value. The average CBR value of three test
specimens is reported as the CBR value of the sample.

Fig: CBR Test

23. Distinguish between flexible pavement and ridged pavement.

Flexible pavement
Typically distribute wheel loads to lower
layers of the pavement section and consists
generally of bituminous material.

Ridged pavement
Typically distribute wheel loads over a wide
area of the subgrade and consists generally of
cement concrete and may be reinforced with
steel
Load transferred grain to grain
No such transfer took place.
Durability is less as compare to rigid.
Durability is more as compare to flexible
Road can be used within 24 hrs.
Road cannot be used until 14 days of curing
Low flexural strength
High flexural strength.
Roller are used
Rollers are not used
No thermal stresses are induced
Thermal stresses are induced
Strength depends upon subgrade
Strength does not depend on subgrade
It consist of four layers system i.e. soil It consist of three layer system i.e. soil
subgrade, sub base course, base course and subgrade, base course and surface source.
surface course.
Deformation in subgrade or lower layers Deformation in subgrade does not transferred
transferred to upper layers
to upper layers.
24. Briefly explain the design factors to be considered in pavement design.
There are so many factors which influencing the pavement design. The factors may be of
loading, environment, materials used etc. Which are as follows:
i. Wheel Load Influence on Pavements
Wheel load on pavement is an important factor to determine the pavement thickness to be
adopted. By providing adequate thickness, the load coming from wheels doesnt affect the
subgrade soil. The wheel load is acts at particular point on pavement and cause deformations.
If the vehicle contains dual wheels on one side of axle, then convert it into equivalent single
wheel load.

Fig: Wheel Load Influence

ii. Vehicle Speed

If the vehicle is moving at creep speed then also damage occurs to the pavement. If vehicle
speed is gradually increased then it will cause smaller strains in the pavement.

iii. Axle Configuration

Axles are the important part of the vehicles which enables the wheels to rotate while moving.
By providing multiple axles, vehicle can carry more load. So, the axle load also influences the
design of pavement. In the layer theory of flexible pavement design wheels on one side of axles
are considered to design the pavement.
iv. Tire Contact Pressure on Pavement
When the vehicle is moving on pavement, a pressure developed between the tire and pavement.
If the tire is low pressure tire, then contact pressure will be greater than tire pressure. If it is
high pressure tire, then contact pressure will be less than tire pressure.

v. Repetition of Loads
Constructed pavement is used by several vehicles in its design life. The wheel loads are
repeated all the time due to this some deformation occurs on the pavement. Total deformation
is the sum of all wheel loads acting on it.
vi. Subgrade Type
To construct pavement sub grade soil need to be tested. Various test like CBR, Tri axial etc.
will helps to determine the quality of subgrade. From this we can adopt the required thickness
to the pavement. If subgrade soil is poor then the pavement should damage easily.
vii.

Temperature Effects on Pavements Design

Temperature is the important environmental factor to be considered in the design of pavement.

In case of asphalt roads, temperature affects the resilient modulus of surface course. In very
hot condition asphalt layers lose their stiffness. At low temperature, asphalt layers become
brittle and cracks are formed.
viii.

Precipitation

Moisture variations or precipitation from rain affects the depth of groundwater table. Good
drainage facilities should be provided for good strength and support. The ground water table
should be at least below 1m from the pavement surface.

25. Explain the design steps for the design of flexible pavement using CSA method.
Design procedure
Based on the performance of existing designs and using analytical approach, simple design
charts and a catalogue of pavement designs are added in the code. The pavement designs are
given for subgrade CBR values ranging from 2% to 10% and design traffic ranging from 1 msa
to 150 msa for an average annual pavement temperature of 35 C. The later thicknesses obtained
from the analysis have been slightly modified to adapt the designs to stage construction. Using
the following simple input parameters, appropriate designs could be chosen for the given traffic
and soil strength:

Design traffic in terms of cumulative number of standard axles

CBR value of subgrade

Design traffic
The method considers traffic in terms of the cumulative number of standard axles (8160 kg)
to be carried by the pavement during the design life. This requires the following information:
1. Initial traffic in terms of CVPD
2. Traffic growth rate during the design life
3. Design life in number of years
4. Vehicle damage factor (VDF)
5. Distribution of commercial traffic over the carriage way.
26. Explain the meaning of ESWL. How is it determined for a dual wheel
assembly and what are its applications?
ESAL is the acronym for equivalent single axle load. It is the theoretical load which, if acting
on a single tire, with a contact area equal to that of one tire of the assembly, will produce the
same effect on the movement area as the multiple wheel assembly.
The procedure of finding the ESWL for equal stress criteria is provided below. This is a semirational method, known as Boyd and Foster method, based on the following assumptions:

equalancy concept is based on equal stress;

contact area is circular;

influence angle is 45o

27. Explain the important design step- for longitude drains of a road to drain off surface
water.
Simplified steps for the design of longitudinal drains of a road to drain off the surface water
given below:

The frequency of return period such as 10 years, 25 years etc. is decided based on
finances available and desired margin of safety, for the design of the drainage system.
The values of coefficients of run-off C1, C2, C3 etc. from drainage areas A1, A2, A3
etc. are found and the weighted value of C is computed.
Inlet time for the flow of storm water from the farthest point in the drainage area to the
drain inlet along the steepest path of flow is estimated from the distance, slope of the
ground and type of the cover. Figure 11.3 may be used for this purpose.
Time of flow along the longitudinal drain T2 is determined for the estimated length of
longitudinal drain L up to the nearest cross drainage or a water course and for the
allowable velocity of flow V in the drain i.e., T2 = L.
The total time T for inlet flow and flow along the drain is taken as the time of
concentration or the design value of rain fall duration, T = T1 + T2.
The required depth of flow in the drain is calculated for a convenient bottom width and
side slop of the drain. The actual depth of the open channel drain may be increased
slightly to give a free board. The hydraulic mean radius of flow R is determined.
The required longitudinal slope S of the drain is calculated using Mannings formula
adopting suitable value of roughness coefficient n.

29. Differentiate between seal coat and prime coat

Prime coat
Bituminous prime coat is the first application of a low viscosity liquid bituminous material
over an existing porous or absorbent pavement surface like the WBM base course. Prime coats
protect the integrity of the granular base during construction and help reduce dust. In the case
of a base which is to be covered with a thin hot mix layer or a chip seal for a low volume
roadway, priming ensures a good bond between the seal and the underlying surface which
otherwise would have a tendency to delaminate.
Seal coat
Bituminous tack coat is the application of bituminous material over existing Pavement surface
which is relatively impervious like an existing bituminous surface or a cement concrete
pavement or a pervious surface like the WBM which has already been treated by a prime coat.
Tack coat (also known as bond coat) is a light application of asphalt emulsion between hot mix
asphalt layers designed to create a strong adhesive bond without slippage. Heavier applications
may be used under porous layers or around patches where it also functions as a seal coat.

30. What is penetration macadam? Describe the method of constructing penetration

macadam road, stepwise.

Consists of crushed stone or slag that is bonded with bituminous materials by the
penetration method and constructed on a previously prepared base or sub base course.
Is used as a wearing surface for a road or as a binder or base course in the stage
construction of a road or an airfield.
May be used as a surface course on overrun areas of an airfield that are not subject to
blast.
Is particularly suitable for use in a remote locality or for a small paving area.
Construction
1. Inspect the base and recondition it as necessary.
2. Prime the base if waterproofing or consolidation of the base top is necessary. Use a tack
coat when placing a penetration-macadam base course over an existing pavement.
3. Spread the macadam aggregate.
4. Roll the surface.
5. Apply the first layer of bituminous material.
6. Apply the keystone.
7. Drag-broom and roll the surface.
8. Apply the second layer of bituminous material.
9. Apply choke stone.
10. Drag-broom, roll, and hand-broom the surface.
11. Apply a surface treatment when additional waterproofing is necessary.

31. Explain the method of sub-surface drainage to control the seepage flow, capillary
rise and water table.
The free water that percolates through or is contained in the soil beneath the surface is called
subsurface water. When it emerges or escapes from the soil, it is termed seepage water and
the point of emergence is called a spring or seepage area.

Fig: Sub-surface drainage

CONTROL OF SEEPAGE FLOW

When the general ground and impervious strata below are slopping, seepage flow is likely to
exist. If the seepage zone is at depth less than 0.6 to 0.9 meter from the sub grade level,
longitudinal pipe drain in trench filled with filler material and clay seal may be constructed to
intercept the seepage flow.
CONTROL OF CAPILLARY RISE
If the water reaches the sub grade due to capillary rise is likely to be detrimental, it is possible
to solve the problem by arresting the capillary rise instead of lowering the water table. The
capillary rise may be checked either by capillary cut-off of any one of the following two types:a) A layer of granular material of suitable thickness is provided during the construction of
embankment, between the sub grade and the highest level of sub surface water table. The
thickness of the granular capillary cut-off layer should be sufficiently higher than the
anticipated capillary rise with in the granular layer so that the capillary water cannot rise above
the cutoff layer.
b) Another method of providing capillary cut-off is by inserting an impermeable or bituminous
layer in the place of granular blanket.
LOWERING OF WATER TABLE
The highest level of water table should be fairly below the level of sub grade, in order that the
sub grade and pavements layers are not subjected to excessive moisture. From practical
considerations it is suggested that the water table should be kept at least 1.0 to 1.2 meter below
the sub grade. In place where water table is high (almost at ground level at times) the best
remedy is to take the road formation on embankment of height not less than 1.0 to 1.2 meter.
When the formation is to be at or below the general ground level, it would be necessary to

lower the water table. If the soil is relatively permeable, it may be possible to lower the high
water table merely construction of longitudinal drainage trenches with drain pipe and filter
sand. If the soil is relatively less permeable, the lowering of ground water level may not be
adequate at the center of the pavement or in between the two longitudinal drainage trenches.
Hence in addition, transverse drainage may have to provide in order to effectively drain off the
water and thus lower the water table up to the level of transverse drains.
32. Explain the terms:
i. BOOT and BOT
Buildoperatetransfer (BOT) or buildownoperatetransfer (BOOT) is a form of project
financing, wherein a private entity receives a concession from the private or public sector to
finance, design, construct, and operate a facility stated in the concession contract. This enables
the project proponent to recover its investment, operating and maintenance expenses in the
project. Due to the long-term nature of the arrangement, the fees are usually raised during the
concession period. The rate of increase is often tied to a combination of internal and external
variables, allowing the proponent to reach a satisfactory internal rate of return for its
investment.
ii. Alligator cracking:
This is the most common type of failure that occurs due the relative movement of pavement
materials. This is caused due to the repeated application moving loads resulting in fatigue
failure or due to the moisture variation resulting in swelling shrinkage of subgrade and other
pavement materials
iii. Bump integrator
An Indigenous device developed by CRRI It comprises of a standard pneumatic wheel mounted
within a rectangular frame with single leaf spring on either side. Spring dashpots mounted on
the leaf spring provide damping for the suspension Integrating unit, mounted on one side of the
frame integrates the unevenness in cm. For the measurement. It is towed by a jeep at a constant
speed of 32 kmph under standard tyre pressure of 2.1 kg/cm2 along the designated wheel path
Bumps in cm and corresponding road length in terms of wheel revolution pulses are displayed
/ recorded on a panel board.

Mathew. T. V. (2009) Lecture notes in Transportation Systems Engineering. Retrieved from:

https://www.civil.iitb.ac.in/~vmtom/1100_LnTse/403_lnTse/plain/ on 2/10/2016.
Ojha. M. N. (2015) Classification of roads in India. Retrieved from:
http://www.probcguide.com/infra-works/roads/classification-of-roads-in-india/ on 27/9/2016
Khanna, S.K., & Justo C.E.G. (2001). Highway Engineering (8th ed.). Roorkee: Nemchand Bros.
Khanna, S.K., & Justo C.E.G. (1994). Highway Material Testing. Roorkee: Nemchand Bros.