P.

ENVIRONMENT
I.

Ecosystems

The grouping of plants, animals and microbes we observe when we study a natural forest,
a grassland, a pond or a coral reef is referred to as the areas biotic community or biota
(bio, living). The plant portion of the biotic community includes all vegetation, from huge
trees to microscopic algae. Likewise, the animal portion includes everything from large
mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians through earthworms and small insects. Microbes
are a large array of microscopic bacteria, fungi, and protozoa. Thus, the biotic community
consists of a plant community, an animal community, and a microbial community.
The particular kind of biotic community that we find in a given area is mainly determined
by the abiotic (non-living, chemical, and physical) factors including the amount of water
or moisture present, the temperature, the salinity (salt content of water), and the type of
soil in the area. These abiotic factors both support and limit the particular community. For
example, a relative lack of available moisture prevents the growth of most species of
plants, but supports certain species, such as cacti; we recognize such areas as deserts. Land
with plenty of available moisture and a suitable temperature supports forests. Obviously,
the presence of water is the major factor that sustains aquatic communities.
Certain animals will not be present unless particular plants that provide their necessary
food and shelter are also present. Thus, the plant community supports (or limits by its
absence) the animal community. In addition, every plant and animal species is adapted to
cope with the abiotic factors of the region. For example, every species that lives in
temperate regions is adapted in one way or another to survive the winter season, which
includes a period of freezing temperatures. The point is that the populations of different
species within a biotic community are constantly interacting with each other and with the
abiotic environment.
This brings us to the concept of an ecosystem, which joins together the biotic community
and the abiotic conditions that it lives in. The ecosystem concept includes considerations
of the ways populations interact with each other and the abiotic environment to reproduce
and perpetuate the entire grouping. In one sentence, an ecosystem is a grouping of plants,
animals, and microbes occupying an unit of space and interacting with each other and their
environment. Thus, a forest, a grassland, a wetland, a marsh, a pond, a barrier island, and
a coral reef, each with its respective species in a particular environment, is a distinct
ecosystem.
Since no organism can live apart from its environment or from interacting with other
species, ecosystems are the functional units of life on Earth. The study of ecosystems and
the interactions that occur among organisms and between organisms and their environment
is the science of ecology.

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Trophic categories
The major feeding relationships between organisms makes up the trophic structure
(trophic, feeding). All ecosystems have three basic categories of organisms that interact in
the same ways.
(1) producers
(2) consumers
(3) decomposers
Together, these groups produce food, pass it along food chains, and return the starting
materials to the abiotic parts of the environment.
Producers
Most producers are green plants which use light energy to convert carbon dioxide (CO2)
and water to a sugar called glucose and release oxygen as a by-product. The process is
known as photosynthesis. They produce food.
Consumers
Primary consumers feed on vegetation and are known as herbivore.
Secondary consumers feed on primary consumers and are known as carnivore.
There are higher levels of consumers. Humans are omnivores as we feed on both plants
and animals.
Decomposers
Fungi and bacteria are decomposers which decompose the waste matter or dead bodies of
living organisms (and utilize them as food).

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II.

Resources

Human use and consumption of the Earths natural resources are generally for three
purposes:
(1)
(2)
(3)

as a source of food,
as a source of energy, and
as a source of raw materials for structures, devices, and other human activities.

There are two general categories of natural resources: renewable resources, which have
the capacity to be replenished, and nonrenewable resources, which exist only in finite
fixed amounts. Examples of renewable resources include water, wind, and solar energy as
well as agricultural crops and wood from forests. The latter types of resources are
renewable only when their rate of consumption is smaller than or equal to the rate they are
replenished. Nonrenewable resources include all metals and minerals (that are used to
produce products and structures), as well as coal, petroleum, natural gas, and uranium
(used to produce nuclear power).
The consumption of natural resources is a concern for several reasons. First of all, the
consumption of natural resources, both renewable and nonrenewable, is closely linked to
air pollution, water pollution and solid waste impacts. Other concerns arise from the fact
that the increasing consumption of nonrenewable resources is simply not sustainable over
the long term. Also, many people believe it is improper, selfish, and unethical for the
earths current inhabitants to deplete resources that are part of the natural environment and
that may be needed or desired by future generations.
There are estimates that petroleum will be used up in the 21st Century while reserves of
lead, mercury, silver, sulphur, tin and zinc like minerals is within 80 years of being
exhausted.
As a resource gradually becomes depleted, its quality also tends to deteriorate. For
example, the concentration of pure copper metal in the ore mined in the western United
States decreased from over 2 percent in 1905 to less than 0.5 percent in 1985. This means
that more than four times more ore must be mined to obtain the same amount of metal and
more energy must be consumed to transport and refine the ore. The use of energy
generates additional natural resources requirements and environmental impacts.
Renewable resources are no exception. They can also be depleted by overconsumption,
like forests lost to commercial lumber production.

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Material Cycling
In photosynthesis, green plants use carbon dioxide and water utilizing solar energy to
produce glucose and oxygen. Glucose is the food for animals and oxygen is taken up by
living organisms in respiration. In turn, the carbon dioxide and other wastes generated
when animals break down their food forms the nutrients needed by green plants. The
cycling of matter is very important.
(a)
(b)

it prevents the accumulation of wastes that would cause problems; and

it guarantees that the ecosystem will not run out of essential elements.

(1)

The Hydrologic Cycle (Water Cycle)

Although we do not usually think about it, water is moving around us constantly. It is not
always flowing downhill: a good deal of it is being pulled up as individual molecules into
the atmosphere by the sun. Solar energy causes water on the surface of the earth to
evaporate (change from a liquid to a gas) and enter the atmosphere. When water
evaporates from the exposed parts of plants, such as leaves, the process is called
transpiration. (Transpiration is the driving force that raises water and dissolved
substances from the roots into the rest of the plant.)
Once in the atmosphere, water vapour is carried by the wind and finally involves
condensation (changing from a gas to a liquid) as a result of cooling. Following
condensation into larger and larger water droplets, water returns to the surface of the earth
as precipitation. Thus the complete hydrologic cycle includes evaporation, condensation,
and precipitation.

Hydrologic Cycle

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The oceans constitute a reservoir for over 97% of all the water on earth. A tiny fraction is
held in the atmosphere, and the rest exists as ice, ponds, lakes, streams, and subsurface
water.
Water that falls as rain or snow on land may seep into the soil, where it becomes
groundwater. Some precipitation ends up as runoff to lakes, streams, and rivers, from
which some water evaporates and the rest makes its way to the oceans.
Terrestrial organisms influence the hydrologic cycle in many ways. Plant cover reduces
the force of impact of raindrops and reduces erosion. Organic matter in soil acts as a
sponge holding water in place between rains. Plants extract water from soil and give off
water vapour from leaves via transpiration.

Human Activities and the Hydrologic Cycle

Humans affect the hydrologic cycle in several ways.
1)

For example, if flowing water is pooled by dams, the evaporation rate changes.

2)

Standing water over a large surface area can absorb more heat energy from the sun to
vaporize water molecules. This in turn may increase precipitation somewhere else.

3)

Clear-cutting a forest or building a parking lot reduces water seepage and increases
runoff, thus reducing the amount of groundwater and increasing the risk of flooding.

4)

If water is withdrawn from a stream or an aquifer faster than it is replenished, water

shortage follows.

5)

Human activities cause water pollution.

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(2)

The Carbon Cycle

The carbon cycle intimately involves all living things; every organic chemical contains
carbon skeleton. Carbon is a key element in the chemistry of all life.
The carbon cycle is categorized as an atmospheric cycle because most of the carbon that
passes through the cycle comes from the air. Approximately 0.03% to 0.04% of the air is
carbon dioxide (CO2), and this very small percentage is the main source of carbon for all
living things.

volcanic
eruption

Atmosphere
(mainly carbon dioxide)

respiration
rocks

photosynthesis

weathering

deforestation

Food webs
(Producers, consumers, decomposers)

Combustion of
fossil fuels

Soil water
(dissolved carbon)

Death, burial, compaction

over geologic time

Leaching,
sedimentation

Peat, fossil
fuels

Marine sediments, including

formation with fossil fuels

Carbon Cycle

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III.

Ways to treat and dispose waste

Municipal waste includes domestic waste and commercial / industrial waste.

Municipal waste arising in Hong Kong in 2010 is 13,000 tonnes (equivalent to 1.29 Kg
municipal solid waste per person per day or 0.87 Kg domestic waste per person).
Ways to treating and disposing waste include:

Landfill (or dumping)

Incineration
Waste reduction at source

Landfills
In a landfill, the waste is put on or in the ground and is covered with earth.
Likely problems of landfilling are: leachate generation and groundwater contamination;
methane (an inflammable and explosive gas) production; incomplete decomposition of
certain waste; and ground settling.
As water percolates through the waste in landfill, various chemicals may dissolve in the
water and get carried along in a process called leaching. The water with various pollutants
in it is called leachate which is highly polluting.
The organic material in municipal waste decomposes in anaerobic condition to give a
biogas which is about 2/3 methane and the rest hydrogen and carbon dioxide, a highly
flammable mixture.
Waste like plastics decomposes very slowly and occupies much landfill space.
Waste settles as it compacts and decomposes in a landfill. Buildings should never been put
on landfills. Differential settling of ground presents a problem in restored landfills that
have been converted to playgrounds and golf courses.
Landfills take up valuable land resources.

Incineration
Waste is burned up in the incinerator and energy is released. Refuse can be burned to
achieve waste reduction (weight by over 70% and volume by 90%). The ash left behind
has to be disposed of. Incinerator can be designed to generate electricity.
Likely problems of incineration are: air pollution, expensive to build and operate
For poorly managed facilities, air pollutants like particulate matters, lead, mercury and
dioxins are released which cause health risks.
Treatment and disposal are required for gases emitted, fly ash and bottom ash produced.

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Source reduction
Source reduction reduces the amount of waste and it conserves resources.

Reuse
Reduce
Recycle
Paper and paperboard waste can be remade into pulp and reprocesses into
recycled paper, cardboard and other paper products
Most glass that is recycled is crushed, remelted, and made into new containers;
a smaller amount is used in fiberglass or glasphalt for construction
Some form of plastics can be remelted and fabricated into carpet fibre, outdoor
wearing, apparel, irrigation drainage tiles, building materials, and sheet plastic
Metals can be melted and refabricated. Making aluminium from scrap
aluminium saves up to 90% of the energy required to make aluminium from
virgin ore
Organic waste can be composted to produce humus soil conditioner
Textiles can be shredded and used to strengthen recycled paper products
Old tyres can be remelted or shredded and incorporated into highway asphalt

Composting is an increasingly popular way of treating organic waste. It involves the

natural biological decomposition (rotting) of organic matter in the presence of air. Worked
by microbes and detritus feeders (worms, grubs, etc), composting can greatly reduce the
volume of the organic waste. The end product is a residue of humus-like materials, which
can be used as an organic fertilizer and soil builder.

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IV.

Pollution and its effects on the environment

Environmental impact or effect can be divided into human health effects and human
welfare impacts.
Human health effects are of greatest concern including severe illness or death caused by
drinking contaminated water. Less severe effect like the reduced lung capacity or
shortness of breath resulting from exposure to high levels of ozone or carbon monoxide
from vehicles exhaust.
Human welfare spans a broad range of impacts including the effects of pollutants on
plants, animals, and materials; aesthetic qualities like good visibility free from air
pollution; recreational opportunities such as lakes and rivers clean enough to allow safe
swimming; and impacts on ecosystems, biodiversity, and natural resources.

A.

Air quality impacts

Air quality impacts scope from localized air pollution in a city or community to regional,
national, and even global impacts.
Air quality objectives (AQOs) for seven widespread air pollutants (also known as criteria
air pollutants) were established in 1987 in Hong Kong. They are : sulphur dioxide, total
suspended particulates, respirable suspended particulates, nitrogen dioxide, carbon
monoxide, photochemical oxidants (as ozone) and lead.
(EPD website for the AQOs expressed as concentration in Microgrammes per cubic meter.
http://www.epd-asg.gov.hk/english/backgd/hkaqo.html)

Can you name some sources of air pollution?

Smoke and particulate matters are most obvious form of air pollution.
Health effects associated with particulate air pollution include respiratory and
cardiovascular disease, damage to lung tissue, and (potentially) carcinogenesis and
premature death. Particulates also reduce visibility, cause soiling or damage to materials,
and causes nuisance in the form of dust.

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Have you heard of PM10 and PM2.5? What do they stand for?

Sulphur dioxide is emitted mainly from combustion. Exposure to high concentrations of

sulphur dioxide can lead to respiratory illnesses and aggravation of existing cardiovascular
or chronic lung disease. It also damages certain plants and crops in form of acid rain
Nitrogen dioxide is toxic at high concentrations. At lower concentrations, it irritates our
respiratory system and causes bronchitis. It also causes acid rain.
Carbon monoxide is formed from incomplete combustion. It is toxic.
Ozone is formed by a series of reactions under sunlight. Ozone causes health problems as
it attacks our lung. Ozone damages plants and trees.
Lead is a heavy metal that can cause neurological damage and adverse effects on organs
such as the liver and kidneys.

B.

Water pollution

There are surface waters (including all the lakes, streams, rivers and ocean) and
groundwater (underground water sources).
Uses of water can be classified as:

Municipal water supplies for drinking, cooking, and other domestic activities
Agricultural use
Industrial use
Recreational use e.g. surface waters for swimming, rafting
Navigation

Water contaminants
Pathogens : they are disease-causing agents such as bacteria, viruses, protozoa and
parasitic worms. They can enter waterways from inadequately treated sewage discharged,
stormwater drains, and runoff.
Organic waste: it includes human and animal excrement, food wastes and organic
residuals from industrial operations. They are decomposed by bacteria that use dissolved
oxygen. The depletion of dissolved oxygen affects the living of aquatic life. In case of
serious pollution by organic waste, recreational and municipal supplies of water become
unsuitable due to bad colour, taste and odour.

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Plant nutrients : Nitrogen and phosphorus are two essential nutrients needed to support
plant growth. They are widely used in fertilizers and household detergents and are
responsible for the over-enrichment of nutrients in lakes, rivers, or streams that leads to
eutrophication.
Toxic organic compounds: Many synthetic organic compounds are toxic. Pesticides are
an example.
Toxic metals: Heavy metals such as chromium, cobalt, copper, iron, manganese, mercury,
lead and so on are toxic. They are mostly arising from industrial discharges.
Sediment and suspended solids: sediment entering a water body eventually settles to the
bottom. A high level of suspended solids produces a turbid water that blocks sunlight and
affect the aquatic vegetation.
Acidity: aquatic life, e.g. fishes, is affected by acidic discharges.

V.

Major Environmental Problems in Hong Kong

Hong Kong has a hilly environment and is lack of flat land. We have a high population
density and highly congested traffic. The presence of many high rise buildings in the urban
area causes reverberation of noise and also limited dispersion of air pollutants. Although
Hong Kong is one of the worlds metropolis, out of the total 1 104 square kilometres of
land, about three-quarters is countryside. Over 40% of our land area is country parks,
special areas and nature reserve. Hong Kong has a remarkably high biodiversity.

Air pollution
Air quality in Hong Kong is badly affected by the high density of vehicles on the roads,
coupled with hilly geography and large number of high-rise buildings. Nitrogen dioxide
and respirable suspended particulates are emitted by diesel vehicles.
Air pollution topped the list of complaints to the Environmental Protection Department
(EPD) with 10080 in 2011 (46% of the air pollution complaint cases). Regional air
pollution has increasingly affected visibility. Air Quality Objectives (AQOs) were barely
met over the years.

Noise pollution
Noise is Hong Kongs biggest environmental nuisance. The problem is aggravated by
Hong Kongs small land area, intense economic activity and past neglect. Construction
noise and transport noise are major noise sources. One million residents are affected by
unacceptable traffic noise.

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VI.

Environmental Infrastructure and Iniatives in Hong Kong

Environmental Infrastructure
Sewerage network
The effluent discharged from most of the population in Hong Kong is collected and
transferred to sewage treatment plants for treatment before discharge. The Drainage
Services Department is responsible to provide wastewater and stormwater drainage
services for Hong Kong.
Solid waste disposal
Various waste disposal and treatment facilities have been established to handle different
types of wastes in Hong Kong. Municipal solid waste is disposed at three strategic
landfills: the North East New Territories (NENT) Landfill, the South East New Territories
(SENT) landfill and West New Territories (WENT) landfill. There is a network of seven
transfer stations for compacting the waste, loading the compacted waste into containers for
transport to landfills.
Chemical waste is collected by licensed collectors and treated at the Chemical Waste
Treatment Centre at Tsing Yi.

Major environmental initiatives

1)

HATS

The Harbour Area Treatment Scheme (HATS) aims to improve the water quality of the
Victoria Harbour in Hong Kong. HATS is an overall sewage collection and treatment
scheme for areas on both sides of Victoria Harbour.
Sewage from Kowloon and the northeastern part of Hong Kong Island is collected and
conveyed to a chemically enhanced primary sewage treatment plant at Stonecutters Island
before disposal. The Scheme involves the construction of a 23.6 km-long system of
tunnels deep underground, each day carrying 1.4 million tonnes of sewage from areas on
both sides of the Victoria Harbour to the sewage treatment facility.
The project has been implemented in two stages. Construction of Stage 1 of HATS
commenced in 1994 and was fully completed and brought into operation in late 2001.
Around 75% of the sewage generated in the harbour area was then treated at the
Stonecutters Island Sewage Treatment Works (SCISTW) and discharged through an
interim outfall to the western harbour area.
The works of Stage 2A commenced in July 2009 and was completed in December 2015.
Through this process, the remaining 25 per cent of sewage from the northern and
southwestern parts of Hong Kong Island, which previously received only preliminary
treatment, are redirected to the newly expanded Stonecutters Island Sewage Treatment
Works for chemically enhanced primary treatment.

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With the facilities of the Harbour Area Treatment Scheme (HATS) Stage 2A coming into
full operation, all sewage from both sides of Victoria Harbour is now conveyed to a
sewage treatment plant for disinfection and discharge into the waters west of the harbour.
This new milestone for the HATS will result in the overall enhancement of the harbour's
water quality.

2)

Waste recycling

3.6 million tonnes (52% of total waste arising) of waste was being recycled in 2010 at
Hong Kong which are mainly exported.
To boost local recycling, government is providing land at an affordable cost for recycling
industry at EcoPark located at Tuen Mun. A total of 14 recyclers are now operating at
EcoPark. Various categories of wastes including plastics, wood, metal, car batteries,
electronic and computer equipment, electrical appliances, rubber tyres, construction
materials and cooking oil are now recycled at the site.
The establishment of the Community recycling network is another initiative to strengthen
the waste reduction (the goal is recovering 55% of the municipal solid waste for re-use or
recycling by 2015). The community recycling network is aimed at increasing both
recycling and public awareness about recycling. It collects mainly waste plastics, glass
bottles and small waste electrical and electronic equipment.
The collection outlets comprise of:

Environment and Conservation Fund (ECF) community recycling centres

Non-governmental Organizations (NGO) collection points
Community recycling booths in busy public areas
Community recycling promotion vehicles

Materials collected at the outlets will be transferred to 1) Kowloon Bay Material Transfer
Centre or 2) EcoPark at Tuen Mun for local recyclers to pick up for recycling.
Anyone of us can help the recycling of domestic waste by participating in the Programme
on Source Separation of Domestic Waste and separating waste using the waste separation
bins on housing estates and deposit rechargeable batteries in designated collection boxes.
The Wastewi$e Label scheme under the Hong Kong Awards for Environmental
Excellence helps Hong Kong businesses and organizations in adopting measures to reduce
the amount of waste generated within their establishments or through the products and
services they provide. It also provides free advice on waste management techniques and
rewards their efforts through public recognition.

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VII

Biodiversity and Conservation

Biodiversity
Biological diversity (or biodiversity) means the different variety of life forms on the Earth
and the relationships between each of them.
Biodiversity provides humans with a number of benefits. These benefits are known as
ecosystem services. Examples are:
1) Supporting Services
Process necessary for production of all other ecosystem services plants carry out
photosynthesis to produce oxygen which is essential for other organism to survive.
Plants also regulate the Earths climate as they absorb carbon dioxide. (Oxygen
production)
2) Provisioning services
Products that humans obtain from ecosystems a healthy marine ecosystem supplies
us with seafood. (Food)
3) Cultural services
Non-material benefits people get from ecosystems visitors watching wildlife in
countryside. (Recreation and tourism)
4) Regulating services
Benefits derived from the regulation of natural processes mangroves filter water by
removing excessive nutrients and toxic materials, and stabilizing suspended particles.
(Water purification)

How do you make use of biodiversity?

Biodiversity in Hong Kong

Despite its small size, Hong Kong has a great variety of biodiversity. Hong Kong has a
rich flora (plant species) with about 3,300 species of vascular plants, of which 2,100 is
native to Hong Kong. A rich and varied fauna (animal species) is found here including
around 520 species of birds, over 50 species of mammals, over 100 species of amphibians
and reptiles, 235 species of butterflies and 117 species of dragonflies. Local waters contain
a wide diversity of fishes, crustaceans, molluscs and other marine life.

Name a marine mammal species of international importance that can be found throughout
the year in Hong Kong.

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Conservation
Biodiversity is threatened by urban development (and human settlement) which causes
destruction or damage to the habitat. Wild species are hunted or collected for pets, food,
ornament, medicine, leather and fur and hence become extinct. Pollution and climate
change also make the conditions unfavourable for wild species to survive.
Conservation in the following ways is important to ensure the continued existence of
various wild species. Protected areas like country parks and special areas for conservation
and recreation; Marine parks and sites of special scientific interest (SSSIs) as habitats of
the wildlife are established and managed. Laws are in place to safeguard the biodiversity.
Relevant ordinances include the Forests and Countryside Ordinance; the Wild Animals
Protection Ordinance; the Protection of Endangered Species of Animals and Plants
Ordinance; the Country Parks Ordinance; the Marine Parks Ordinance and the Fisheries
Protection Ordinance.
The Country Parks Ordinance provides for the designation, control and management of
country parks and special areas for nature conservation, education and scientific research
purposes. Country parks may be used for compatible recreation and tourism purposes.
The Protection of Endangered Species of Animals and Plants Ordinance imposes controls
on the import, export, re-export, introduction from the sea or possession of endangered
species to prevent the over-exploitation.

Name one important wildlife conservation site in Hong Kong which is of international
importance.

What should you do to protect our biodiversity?

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