Introduction

Introduction
Mixer design is an art. Field testing, consumer feedback, and experience are used to refine the
design. Despite the information collected over years of use in the beef and dairy industries and
the yearly design changes, mixer design is still a mechanical art form.
Total mixed rations (TMRs) have become the major feeding system of the dairy industry.
Experienced nutritionists and research trials allow us to build better rations. Despite the
information collected in research feed trials and the use of ration balancing software, feeding a
dairy cow is still a biological art form.
Please check this link first if you are interested in organic or specialty dairy production.
Mixer Design
There are approximately 25 different mixer manufacturers in the market, and, in general, the
mixers seem to be doing an adequate job of mixing a TMR. There has been only a handful of
cases where the mixer design failed to do the job, and those mixers quickly left the market. In
other cases, the mixers were used improperly (over- or under-mixing) which caused nutritional
problems for the dairy herds. The mixer design that works best for one farm may not be the best
choice for a different farm. The question Is there a best mixer design? is open for discussion,
debate, and personal opinion. A better question would be Which mixer is better for my
situation?
There are certainly design differences in the mixers available. Design changes are driven by
market and consumer demand. Take for example the consumer demand that a mixer should be
able to handle the addition of long dry hay into the ration. This has impacted the design changes
of many of the mixers on todays market. In less than five years. this design goal has produced
mixers that can process either a little hay or a lot of hay. This particular design change has
caused another potential problem: particle size reduction using too long a mixing time.
Mixer design is still primarily a trial-and-error process with due consideration given to prior
experience. The manufacturer selects a specific mixer design that is expected to perform, and
field tests determine design changes and their effect on the mix.
In a summary paper on mixer design, these design and testing issues were identified:
Evaluate mixer design (type, geometry, power, time, speed, efficiency).
Define material changes (particle size reduction).
Define standards for comparison of mixers.
Classify and measure degree of mixing (determine the quality of the mix).
Describe the mixing process.
Correlate quality of mix with respect to time.
All of these are good research projects, and some manufacturers and researchers may have
answers to some of these problems. Other issues may never be solved. As an industry, there is
no effort to coordinate the research efforts or develop standards for testing.
Function of a Mixer
The definition of mixing is the putting together of two or more substances or groups, one with
another so that the particles or members of each are diffused among those of the others. The
function of the mixer is to blend uniformly particles of different sizes, moisture content, and bulk
density. Perfect mixing is the state in which any sample removed from the mixture has exactly
the same composition. This never really occurs because of segregation due to differences in
particle size, density, and shape.
The manufacturers select mixer designs that provide for the needed degree of mixing in the
desired time. The variation of the mix should be minimal as the feed is delivered out of the
mixer. Samples pulled from the beginning, middle, and end of unloading should be the same.
In reality, this means no significant difference to the animal.
The mixer should allow the use of a variety of feeds to be blended into a ration that provides the
desired nutritional requirements for the animal to be fed. The mixed ration should be uniformly
blended so that when an animal takes a mouthful of feed, it receives a homogeneous sample of
the combined ingredients. The mixed ration should prevent sorting of feeds by the animal and
mask less palatable feeds. However, a mixer is limited in its capability to mix a ration by the feed
ingredients that are used in the ration.
Mixing requires motion of the particles. This is done by moving particles mechanically with
augers, reels, chains, and drums. The mechanical forces that mix the ration can also cause
particle size reduction to occur. This particle size reduction may or may not be a beneficial or
desired function of the mixing operation. New mixer designs highlighting the ability to mix in dry
hay must be able to achieve two opposite goals. On one side, the mixer must be able to cut up
or tear apart long dry hay. On the other side, the mixer must not reduce particle size so much
that it impacts the roughage value of the ration.
Mixer Design Options

There are approximately 20 different companies producing TMR mixers of various designs. The
industry continues to change and adapt to the marketplace. The mixers on the market fall into
several general design categories. Figure 1 describes the basic mixer designs. A description of
the different trailer mixer designs follows.
Horizontal Auger Mixer

This mixer uses one, two, three, or four augers to churn the feed in a hopper (Figure 1). The
feed moves along the flighting of the auger(s). In one- and two-auger mixers, the flighting moves
feed toward the middle of the mixer, and it bubbles to the top toward the sides and back down to
the augers. Feed is also moved to the discharge door from both ends of the mixer. In three- and
four-auger mixers, one or two counterrotating auger(s) and/or flighting moves feed in the
opposite direction of the other augers. Feed moves from end to end and from bottom to top. The
feed eventually moves toward the discharge door and is unloaded when the door is opened. In
many mixer designs, notched auger flighting and/or knife sections attached to the auger flighting
provide the ability to cut or tear long hay into 3- to 4-inch pieces and incorporate it into the
ration. Design differences in these mixers include rotation speed of the augers, auger diameters,
and auger flighting design.
Reel Mixer
This mixer combines a set of augers and a reel similar to a combine reel in a hopper (Figure 1).
Feed is lifted and tumbled by the reel moving it to the rotating augers, which provide a mixing
action, move feed from end to end and to the discharge door. Knife sections on the auger flights
cut or tear long dry hay into 3- to 4-inch pieces and incorporate it into the ration. An optional hay
pan allows the hay to be metered into the mixer providing the ability to break up large portions of
dry hay or baleage
Tumble Mixer
This mixer is a large drum with spirals and/or pans on the interior circumference of the drum to
lift and tumble the ration (Figure 1). A central auger moves feed from end to end and to the
discharge door. A large part of the drum opens like a door to allow loading with a Skidsteer or
loader bucket.
Chain and Paddle Mixer

This mixer uses a tub or box containing a chain and paddles or slat conveyor to tumble the feed
ingredients within the tub end to end (Figure 1). An auger at the front of the mixer provides
additional mixing and moves material to the discharge door.
Figure 1. Mixer Design Types
Vertical Screw Mixer

This mixer consists of a large tub with a single vertical tapered screw centered in the tub (Figure
1). A planetary gearbox and transmission drive the screw. Knife sections are attached to the
flighting to cut material. Movable shear or restrictor plates on the tub wall provide a shear
surface, increasing the ability to process and reduce the particle size of large packages of hay.
These units can process rations with almost 100% dry hay. No prior processing of hay is
required.
Mixer Cart
Mixing carts are scaled-down versions of some of the designs discussed above. There are chain
and paddle, tumble, and reel mixer cart designs on the market. Sizes range from 40 to 80 c.f.
They usually are powered by a small 8 to 18 h.p. gas engine. They are used where a smaller
volume of feed is needed. The mixing cart can feed approximately 12 to 24 cows per batch
mixed. It is a popular option for small herds. Research herds also find them useful for feeding
cows on nutritional trials.
Scale
Scales are required on a mixer to properly weigh and blend the ration. Electronic digital readout
scales use load cells or weigh bar designs to weigh ingredients in the mixer and are accurate to
between 0.25 to 1%. The weighing system is usually supported at three or four places (points)
on the mixer chassis depending on the design of the weigh sensors.
Magnet
A magnet attached at the discharge chute is used to pick up hardware before it ends up in the
feed bunk. It may be standard or an option on the mixer but should be considered part of a basic
mixer system.
Mixer Testing
We dont have a consumer report of TMR mixing equipment to compare mixers under similar
conditions to answer the question Which mixer gives the best mix? For an individual farm, the
best advice is to have an on-farm demonstration and test the mixer(s) you are considering by
mixing a ration that you currently feed. The cow is the ultimate test.
There is no standard method of evaluating a specific mixer design. There is no universally
accepted means of comparing mixers or determining what design changes need to be made
with a particular mixer to make it better. Manufacturers test during the development of a mixer,
but, in general, the testing is not consistent from one manufacturer to another or comprehensive
to include all mixers.
Ration tests might include using a tracer (salt content), nutritional tests (protein content), and
particle size tests (mean particle length). These tests measure the variability/uniformity of the
samples. Since a "perfect mix" is impossible, there will likely be some differences in the test
results. The test results should be looked at to determine the statistical significance of the
variability. A nutritionist, feed consultant, or someone familiar with statistical analysis can help to
interpret the test results.
Sampling of the ration can be done at specific times during the mixing process. Always shut off
the tractor and/or the mixer before pulling samples from inside the mixer. But most often,
sampling is done by pulling samples at the beginning, middle, and end of unloading. Pulling
samples along the length of the bunk after the feed is delivered is the most common sampling
technique. Samples should be representative of the mix. When pulling a sample, there should
be no sifting of the ration. The sample size should be approximately 1 to 2 quarts per sample.
Pulling two or more samples at each location, and averaging the results, increases the statistical
significance of the results. However, this does increase the cost of tests.
Incorporating Long-Stemmed Forage

Dry baled hay in small or large bales is an example of long-stemmed forage (hay) that some
farms like to incorporate into a total mixed ration. First, the hay must be processed, which
involves particle size reduction by the mixer if designed to do so or as an additional step before
adding to the mixer. "Hay" is generally thought of as alfalfa and/or grass forage. However, the
recommendations used by manufacturers are based on the assumption that hay is alfalfa-based
forage (possibly with a small amount of grass) which will break up, shatter, or tear up easily. This
allows it to be incorporated into the mix easily. Grass-based hay usually causes problems for
most mixers because it wraps around augers and is harder to incorporate into the mix.
The amount of hay that can be handled in a mixer is a function of the mixer design. Most of the
mixers on the market can handle a small percentage (10 to 20%) by weight or volume of the
forage as hay. Several auger mixers and the vertical mixers can handle up to 100% of the forage
as hay. Sawtooth augers or knives on the flighting cut or break up the material into small pieces.
The longer the mixer is allowed to process the hay, the shorter the length of cut. Usually the hay
package is introduced into the mixer and processed for a short time and then additional feeds
are added to complete the ration. The vertical mixers can also process wrapped bale silage
(baleage). Another way to incorporate hay is to process it through a bale chopper or other type
of hay processor.
Batch Mixing
All the mixers on the market are batch mixers. In batch mixing, a ration is followed, and feed
ingredients are added one at a time until the required weight of each specific ingredient is
reached and the batch is complete. The order of addition of feeds can affect the mixing ability
and/or time of mixing. In addition, the loading point of the mixer may affect the time required to
get a complete mix. Follow manufacturers recommendations on the order in which to add feeds
and the recommended mixing time. For example, of 14 mixers surveyed, six recommended dry
hay to be processed first, and eight recommended grains to be added first.
Mixing Time
Manufacturers recommended mixing times range from 3 to 6 minutes. Depending on the mixer
design, processing of large quantities of hay is generally done before adding other feeds and is
not part of the mixing time. Small quantities of hay may be adequately mixed during the mixing
process depending on manufacturers recommendations. Overmixing continues to be a
management problem with many TMR rations. In a survey of 49 Wisconsin herds using TMR,
the average time mixing was 16 minutes, and the range was 2 to 60 minutes. Additional mixing
time past the recommended time only decreases the particle size, usually does not improve the
mix, and sometimes causes segregation (separation) of the mix.
Safety
Safety should also be considered in mixer design and use. Metal steps or a ladder should be
used to climb up for inspection and allow for safe filling of the mixer. Open-top mixers should
have grates in place to prevent accidentally falling into an operating mixer. PTO shields should
remain in place. Do not remove safety shields. Never start the mixer before locating children and
co-workers at a safe distance. Do not attempt to dislodge wrapped hay from augers or other
moving parts of the mixer while it is running. At least one fatality involving a mixer has been
documented in Wisconsin.
Total Mixed Ration Volume

Figure 2 shows the approximate volume of feed per cow needed at varying milk production
levels. Dry matter intake for varying milk production was obtained from nutritionists. Be aware
that these values are estimates from a spreadsheet based on assumptions of a base total mixed
ration and densities of feeds used in the rations. Many factors affect the final ration density. The
ration densities in this chart vary from 15 to 18 lb/c.f. (as fed.) The ration densities were
calculated based on a 70% forage to 30% grain ratio, with haylage and/or corn silage for forage
and high-moisture ear corn as the grain. Four different rations are shown. As-fed bulk densities
of the feeds were assumed to be 12 lb/c.f. for hay silage, 14 lb/c.f. for corn silage, 46 lb/c.f. for
high-moisture ear corn, and 5 lb/c.f. for dry hay.
Figure 2. TMR Volume per Cow (As Fed)
The resulting TMR ration volume estimates from the spreadsheet have been checked with
several manufacturers recommendations and seem to be close to what salespeople suggest for
sizing a mixer.
There is a difference in ration density when substituting some dry hay for haylage. The addition
of dry hay tends to bulk up the ration. The as-fed ration density decreased approximately 1
lb/c.f. for every 10% addition of dry hay for silage. As the TMR ration density decreases, the
ration volume per cow increases, requiring a larger mixing capacity. A ration with 20%
replacement of dry hay for silage is also shown. Substitution of dry hay above 20% of the ration
will probably decrease the ration density as well, but it is unknown how much it will affect the
density.
In one ration, corn silage was substituted for some haylage. Since corn silage tends to have a
slightly higher bulk density than haylage, the as-fed ration density increased approximately 1
lb/c.f. As the TMR ration density increases, the ration volume per cow decreases, requiring a
smaller mixing capacity. The volume read from the chart for a particular ration can be used to
determine the mixing capacity needed for a group of cows.
Mixer Sizing
The mixer size depends on the group size, ration density, production level, and the number of
times each group is fed. For example, using Figure 2, with a ration that has 10% dry hay, the
ration density is approximately 16 lb/c.f. A cow producing 80 pounds of milk per day requires a
ration volume of approximately 6.5 c.f./cow/day.
A group of 100 cows at this production level would require:
100 cows x 6.5 c.f./cow/day = 650 c.f./day

Feeding twice a day would require:
650 c.f./day / 2 times feeding = 325 c.f. mixing capacity

This is the mixing capacity per batch of feed for this group of cows. Some farms considering
feeding only once a day during some parts of the year would mean either buying a mixer large
enough (650 c.f.) for once-a-day feeding or mixing two batches (325 c.f.) each. Economics,
labor availability, and feed management will help determine the decision.
The struck or level capacity of a mixer is the total volume of the mixing compartment. Mixers are
rated from 60 to 90% of the struck level capacity of the mixer depending on the manufacturer. A
good estimate would be to buy a mixer based on 60 to 70% of the struck level capacity of the
mixer or asking for the mixing capacity of the mixer. Always follow manufacturers
recommendations on mixer capacity. Overloading mixers beyond their rated mixing capacity
increases the mixing time required for a uniform mix and may result in spillage and lost feed.
Mixer Costs
A survey was done to determine costs of mixers on the market in 1998. The cost data represent
the manufacturers suggested retail price (MSRP) of their line of mixers. Features included in the
MSRP were a trailer-mount mixer, with medium-priced electronic scale, and magnet on the
discharge, ready for use. The information includes 59 mixers representing 11 companies. Most
companies have from four to eight mixer sizes in their line. The costs of the mixers ranging in
size from 120 c.f. to 900 c.f. were plotted in Figure 3. No comparison between companies was
done. The cost data were plotted according to stated mixing capacity of each model mixer and
the quoted price. This information is useful in developing enterprise budgets.
Figure 3. TMR Mixer Costs
Selecting a Mixer
With so many mixers on the market, the selection of a mixer becomes a matter of being a good
consumer. This requires that buyers determine their needs, match mixer features to those
needs, and research the different mixers available. The questions below need to be answered
and should lead you to select the correct mixer for your situation. The answer to the question
"Which is the best mixer?" will have a different answer for you and your neighbor.
What size mixer is needed?
What kinds of feeds are in my ration?
Can this mixer blend my ration?
Can this mixer incorporate the amount of dry hay needed in the ration?
Will the mixer provide a uniform mix (with my ration)?
How many hours per day will the mixer be used?
Is there local service?
Is the mixer well built?
Is the mixer available on a trailer or truck mount?
What kind of scale is available?
Are there other mixers of this brand around that I can inspect?
What other options are needed?
What is my budget?
Author Information
David W. Kammel, Professor, Biological Systems Engineering Department, University of
Wisconsin-Madison
References
ASAE Standard: ASAE S424. ASAE, St. Joseph, MI.
Buckmaster, D.R., L.D. Muller. 1992. How do we characterize an adequate TMR mix? ASAE
paper 92-1542. 1992 ASAE Winter Meeting. Nashville, TN.
Lindley, J.A. 1991. Mixing processes for agricultural and food materials. Journal of Agricultural
Engineering Research 48:153-170.
Lundmark, B.A., D.R. Buckmaster. 1995. Effect of mixing time on TMR particle size. 1995
American Forage and Grassland Conference Proceedings. pp. 214-218.
Possin, I.R., C. DeCorte, R. D. Shaver, R.T Schuler. 1994. Survey of particle length and
metabolic disorders on commercial dairies. Dairy Science Department, UW-Madison. Shaver,
Randy D. 1990. Forage Particle Length in Dairy Rations. Dairy Feeding Systems Symposium.
pp. 58-64. Northeast Regional Agricultural Engineering Service, Ithaca, NY.
Shinners, K., D.W. Kammel, R.D. Shaver, G. Oetzel. 1994. Characterizing and Quantifying
Adequacy of Total Mixed Rations: Engineering and Animal Focus. Research Proposal.
Wilcox, R.A., D.L Unruh. 1986. Feed Mixing Times and Feed Mixers. Cooperative Extension
Service, Kansas State University.
1. INTRODUCTION
Feed manufacturing and the associated quality control programme are keys to successful fish culture.
Unless the fisheries biologist understands and specifies the activities of the feed mill and its laboratory,
profitable fish farming will be a matter of chance.
Dry feeds may be ground, sifted, screened, mixed, compressed, expanded, texturized, coloured and
flavoured. By one or more of these processes, a wide variety of ingredients can be prepared into a
standardized product. Since most fish have size and texture preferences and often react to colour, odour,
and flavour, processing research is an integral part of fish culture.
2. GRINDING
2.1 Hammermills
2.2 Attrition Mills
2.3 Roller Mills
2.4 Cutters
2.5 Screening
Grinding or particle-size reduction is a major function of feed manufacturing. Many feed mills pass all
incoming ingredients through a grinder for several reasons:
(a) clumps and large fragments are reduced in size,
(b) some moisture is removed due to aeration, and
(c) additives such as antioxidants may be blended.
All of these improve the ease of handling ingredients and their storability.
There are other reasons for grinding and the associated sieving of ingredients in formula feeds before
further processing. Small fish and fry require plankton-size feeds available in dry form as a meal or
granule. Extremes in particle sizes are wasteful and often dangerous. Fry have been killed because of
their inability to pass through the digestive system large pieces of connective tissue and bone present in
dry animal byproducts, or hull fragments found in cottonseed meal and rice bran. On the other hand, dust
or "fines" may become colloidal suspensions in water, so dilute that several mouthfuls carry little nutritive
value.
The grinding of ingredients generally improves feed digestibility, acceptability, mixing properties,
pelletability, and increases the bulk density of some ingredients. It is accomplished by many types of
manual and mechanical operations involving impact, attrition, and cutting.
2.1 Hammermills
Hammermills are mostly impact grinders with swinging or stationary steel bars forcing ingredients against
a circular screen or solid serrated section designated as a striking plate (Figure 1). Material is held in the
grinding chamber until it is reduced to the size of the openings in the screen. The number of hammers on
a rotating shaft, their size, arrangement, sharpness, the speed of rotation, wear patterns, and clearance at
the tip relative to the screen or striking plate are important variables in grinding capacity and the
appearance of the product. Heat imparted to the material, due to the work of grinding, is related to the
time it is held within the chamber and the air flow characteristics. Impact grinding is most efficient with dry,
low-fat ingredients, although many other materials may be reduced in size by proper screen selection and
regulated intake.
Most hammermills have a horizontal drive shaft which suspends vertical hammers but for some
ingredients, such as dried animal byproducts, a "vertical" hammermill is more efficient. In this mill, the
drive shaft is positioned vertically and screens and hammers are positioned horizontally. Material
successfully reduced in size to the diameter of screen holes or smaller, are carried by gravity outside the
mill and thence by air or conveyor to storage in "make-up" bins. Over-size particles, not easily broken,
drop through the mill and may be re-cycled or discarded. Thus foreign materials, such as metal and
stones, are discharged before they are forced through the screen causing damage.
Fig. 1 Hammer Mill
2.2 Attrition Mills

Attrition mills use the hammermill principle to a certain extent; i.e., shattering by/impact. However, they
also impart a shearing and cutting action. Grinding is done between two discs equipped with replaceable
wearing surfaces. One or both of these discs is rotated; if both, they rotate in opposite directions. When
one disc is rotated, and the other stationary, the assembly is used for shredding and deferring. Often
materials which have been coarsely ground by other mills, are passed through an attrition mill for blending
or smoothing out an ingredient or mixture containing liquids which may have clumps. The discs of an
attrition mill are generally in a vertical position so that materials not capable of reduction can pass by
gravity out of the grinding area.
2.3 Roller Mills
A combination of cutting, attrition, and crushing occurs in roller mills. These are smooth or corrugated rolls
rotating at the same speed set at a pre-determined distance apart with material passing between the two.
A tearing action may be added by operating the rolls at different speeds and by corrugations which are
different for each roll; i.e., the top roll may have off-radial spiral corrugations and the bottom roll lateral
corrugations. This last type, called a "Le Page cut" is used in making granules from hard pellets, as it
provides a breaking surface without much impact to cause dust. Roll grinding is economical but limited to
materials which are fairly dry and low in fat.
2.4 Cutters
Rotary cutters are a type of grinder which reduces dry particle solids mainly by shearing with knife edges
against a striking plate. The mill also includes the processes of attrition and impact, although these
actions are limited if the material is easily reduced by cutting and the screen limiting discharge has large
perforations. The mill consists of a rotating shaft with four attached parallel knives and a screen
occupying one fourth of the 360 degree rotation. The mill is best used to crack whole grains with a
minimum of "fines". It is not used as a final process for reducing the size of ingredients used in fish feeds.
2.5 Screening
Associated with grinding feeds for fish fry, a sieving system is required which classifies materials to any
desired particle size. The "overs" in this system may be re-ground or rejected. The "throughs" may be
selected to comply with fish preferences for size and mixed according to formula specifications. Feeds
sifted through a 177-micron opening (a U.S. No. 100 sieve) have been successfully used for increasing
survival and growth of minnows and catfish fry. Hammermill or impact grinding of dry feeds, especially
cereal grains, creates particles within the range called "dust", and a dust-collecting system may be
necessary to remove this. An excess of dust in the feed may lead to gill disease, a situation where organic
matter adhering to gills becomes a nutrient for bacteria or parasites.
The problem of excess dust formed by grinding feeds may be partly alleviated by adding a spray of oil or
a semi-moist ingredient, such as condensed fish solubles or fermentation solubles, on feeds entering the
grinder. Dehydrated alfalfa is prepared as a dust-free meal, similar in texture to a sifted crumblized pellet,
by spraying mineral oil into a hammermill chamber during grinding.
3. MIXING
3.1 Horizontal Mixers

3.2 Vertical Mixers
3.3 Other Types of Mixers
3.4 Liquid Mixers
3.5 Mixing Operation and Evaluation
The objective of feed mixing is to start with a certain assortment of ingredients called a "formula", totalling
some definite weight. This is processed so that each small unit of the whole, either a mouthful or a day's
feeding, is the same proportion as the original formula. Mixing is recognized as an empirical unit
operation, which means that it is more of an art than a science and must be learned by experience.
Feed mixing may include all possible combinations of solids and liquids. Within each ingredient are
differences in physical properties. For solids there are differences in particle size, shape, density,
electostatic charge, coefficient of friction as represented by the angle of repose, elasticity or resilience
and, of course, colour, odour, and taste. For liquids there are differences in viscosity and density.
The term "mixed" can mean either blended, implying uniformity, or made up of dissimilar parts, implying
scattering. As applied to formula feeds, the objective of mixing combines each of these definitions; i.e.,
the scattering of dissimilar parts into a blend. However, it is improbable that uniformity is attained with
particles within a, sample arranged in some order of position or concentration. That is only a quality
control; goal. It has been suggested that a proper title for a discussion of mixing should be "mixing and
unmixing", for during the operation there is a constant tendency of particles which have been mixed to
become separated. Three mechanisms are involved in the mixing process:
(a) the transfer of groups of adjacent particles from one location in the mass to another,
(b) diffusion
distribution of particles over a freshly developed surface,
(c) shear
slipping of particles between others in the mass.
In theory, the position of particles within a container is determined by chance, and the effects of chance
accumulate until they outweigh the direct effects of mixing action. In the mixing of liquids, chance
movement of components creates order or uniformity. With dry solids, chance distribution creates
disorder. When disorder is at a more or less stable maximum, it may be called "random". Many factors in
dry solids cause particles to avoid a chance or random arrangement. In fact, the result of mixing feed
ingredients may be a definite pattern of particle segregation or non-random arrangement.
Particle segregation is due to differences in the physical properties of ingredients and the shape and
surface characteristics of the mixer. Particle size may be the most important factor in causing segregation.
An improvement in mixing which approaches random distribution of solids by decreasing particle size can
be measured quantitatively by statistical methods. In general, the smaller and the more uniformally sized
the ingredients are prepared, the more nearly they will approach random distribution during mixing.
In many formulae, a decrease in particle size is necessary to attain a sufficient number of particles of an
essential additive (vitamin, mineral, medication) for dispersion in each daily feed unit. This may require
the particle size to be the diameter of dust, 10 to 50 microns. Certain ingredients are unstable in finely
divided form and likely to acquire an electrostatic charge. Concentration of particles on a charged surface,
roughness of the mixed and stickiness of oily and wet ingredients are factors in causing segregation when
very small particles are mixed and when these are much smaller than the bulk of other ingredients.
Mixing may be either a batch or a continuous process. Batch mixing can be done on an open flat surface
with shovels or in containers shaped as cylinders, half-cylinders, cones or twin-cones with fixed baffles or
moving augers, spirals, or paddles. Continuous mixing proportions by weight or volume, is a technique
best suited for formula feeds with few ingredients and minimal changes.
3.1 Horizontal Mixers

3.1.1 Continuous ribbon mixers
The continuous or "twin-spiral" mixer consists of a horizontal, stationary, half-cylinder with revolving
helical ribbons placed on a central shaft so as to move materials from one end to the other as the shaft
and ribbon rotate inside (Figure 2). Capacity can be from a few litres to several cubic metres. The speed
of shaft rotation will vary inversely as the circumference of the outer ribbon; usually optimum between 75100 metres per minute. Since material travel is from one end to the other, either end may be used for
discharge. These mixers may be inverted for cleaning.
3.1.2 Non-continuous ribbon mixers
Non-continuous or interrupted ribbons are similar to the continuous ribbon mixers except that short
sections called "paddles" or "ploughs" are spaced in a spiral round the mixer shaft. Action is different from
that of continuous ribbon mixers, and may be more satisfactory for mixing liquids with dry solids. These
mixers are made in a wide variety of sizes with travel of the outer diameter of paddles from 100 to 120
metres per minute.
Fig. 2 Continuous ribbon mixer
3.2 Vertical Mixers

Vertical mixers may consist of a cylinder, cone, or hopper-shaped container, with a single or double screw
(auger) located vertically through the centre (Figure 3). The screw operates at speeds of 100 to 200 rpm
and vertically conveys incoming materials from the bottom (generally the intake) end, like a screw
conveyor, to the top where they are scattered and fall by gravity. This sequence is repeated several times
until a blend is attained (usually from 10 to 12 minutes). These mixers may also be loaded from the top.
Results show that vertical mixers are not efficient for uniform mixing of solids and liquids or for materials
of quite different particle size or density. This unit is difficult to clean and there may be inter-batch
contamination.
Fig. 3 Vertical Mixer
3.3 Other Types of Mixers

A third type of mixer is the horizontal revolving drum. This can be a straight-sided cylinder or a cylinder
tapered at each end. The sides may be smooth or fixed with baffles or shelves to pick up and drop
ingredients. Smooth, dry materials of uniform physical properties are blended best in this type of mixer.
A modification of this type is the turbine mixer which is a fixed cylinder with revolving shaft to which are
fixed paddles, ploughs, scrapers, or shelves designed to re-pile materials continually. This mixer is often
used as a cooker to dry fish wastes and to blend various types of fish meal into a standardized product.
They are also particularly efficient for mixing heavy ingredients and for adding liquids to mixtures which
would clump or cake in another type of mixer. Some particle size reduction (grinding) may occur on soft
materials, such as rice bran and alfalfa leaves. A complete mixing can usually be attained in 3 to 6
minutes unless longer time is necessary to eliminate lumps caused by added liquids. Mixer shaft rotation
is regulated to provide some centrifugal action, but this must not be excessive.
The "Nauta" mixer originated in Holland and is constructed in the form of an inverted cone with a mixing
screw inside rotating around the inside wall. The mixer is made in a variety of sizes from laboratory
models, for premixing chemical and vitamin additives, to very large production sizes. It is excellent for
premixing trace elements and works very well for adding moderate amounts of liquids into dry ingredients.
Another type of mixer called the "entoleter" consists of a high-speed rotating disc which throws the
ingredient charge with considerable force against the walls of a chamber. This mixer functions well to
smooth out clumps or balls of compacted ingredients and will cause eggs of grain weevils to become
inactive. However, since it may shatter vitamin A beadlets encapsulated in gelatine, it is not recommended
for all mixtures.
3.4 Liquid Mixers

Oils and water-miscible oil preparations are often added to dry ingredients as a source of energy or as a
specific nutrient. Although the oil-soluble vitamins. A, D, E, and K, are available in dry carrier
concentrates, they may be obtained in pure form and premixed by the feed manufacturer. Liquids
containing nutrients can be mixed faster and with more uniformity than the same nutrient in dry
concentrate condition. Therefore, a liquid blender may be needed in the feed plant.
Liquid blenders usually consist of a horizontal tub or cylinder with a number of wires or paddles equally
spaced around a shaft which revolves inside. Sometimes the shaft is hollow and liquids are forced
through holes in the paddles in a spray effect. Some models have a shaft speed of 400 to 600 rpm while
others rotate at 1 200 rpm. Ingredients such as condensed fish or fermentation solubles, molasses, or fish
oils are often premixed in a bowl type variable speed mixer, blending the liquid with dry ingredients.
3.5 Mixing Operation and Evaluation

Accurate mixing requires the addition of ingredients in a tested sequence from batch to batch. The usual
practice is to add large-volume ingredients first, then those of smaller amount. Unless already premixed,
liquids should be added after all dry ingredients have been mixed. Total mixing time is critical and is
influenced by the composition of the formula. All mixers should be calibrated by laboratory recovery of
known additives (physically or chemically) so that under and over mixing does not occur. Uniformly sized
salt, graphite, or iron particles coated with water soluble dyes are often used as "tracers". Each mixer
should be calibrated for its mixing time and capacity by volume for best results.
4. PELLETING
4.1 Application
4.2 Influence of Feed Composition
4.3 Cooling and Drying
4.4 Crumbles
4.5 Screening or Grading
4.6 Use of Hard Pellets
4.7 Hazards of Feeding Hard Pellets
4.8 Pellet Hardness and Stability
4.9 Floating Pellets
The transformation of a soft, often dusty feed into a hard pellet is accomplished by compression,
extrusion, and adhesion. The general process involves passing a feed mixture through a conditioning
chamber where 4 to 6 percent water (usually as steam) may be added. Moisture provides lubrication for
compression and extrusion and in the presence of heat causes some gelatinization of raw starch present
on the surface of vegetative ingredients, resulting in adhesion. Within 20 seconds of entering the pellet
mill, feed goes from an air-dry (about 10-12 percent moisture) condition at ambient temperature, to 15-16
percent moisture at 80-90C. During subsequent compression and extrusion through holes in a ring' die,
friction further increases feed temperature to nearly 92C. Pellets discharged onto a screen belt of a
horizontal tunnel drier or into a vertical screened hopper are air-cooled within 10 minutes to slightly above
ambient temperatures and dried to below 13 percent moisture.
Contrary to early belief, finished pellets contain practically all the nutrients found in feedstuffs and
additives as compounded. The loss of thermolabile vitamins used in additives, which may be slight or
extensive in the case of vitamin C, may be compensated for by extra supplementation of these in the
vitamin premix to comply with formula requirements. Diastatic enzymes (alpha and beta amylase) present
in whole grains and cereal byproducts are still active after processing by grinding and pelleting, although
powdered enzymes added as an ingredient are inactivated.
4.1 Application
Mechanically, the process of pelleting involves forcing soft feed through holes in a metal ring-type die.
These holes may be round or square, tapered or non-tapered. Single or double rolls mounted inside the
die ring on a cam or eccentric, turn on a rotating shaft as friction develops (due to the presence of feed
between roll and die). Feed is forced through the die holes in increments so that dissection of a finished
pellet shows tight layers of feed mixture. The die is driven by a motor and the rolls turn only as feed
between rolls and die develops friction.
To make dry feed particles pliable for close compression and to decrease friction and absorb mechanical
heat, water is often added to the feed, either as the formula is mixed or in the conditioning chamber of the
pellet mill. Water may be provided as liquid and/or vapour. If water is provided in the form of steam, two
objectives are accomplished:
(a) a high volume of water vapour condenses on the surface of feed particles, wetting and softening them
for better compression, and
(b) the high temperatures of this steam cause some gelatinization of raw starch present in all vegetative
ingredients, providing the necessary adhesion for firm pellets.
If sufficient moisture cannot be added as steam, pretreatment with water may be used to gain the desired
lubricating effect.
It is not absolutely necessary to add steam to a soft feed in order to compress it into a pellet. Materials
such as rice bran, ground cottonseeds, and palm kernel cake may be pelleted with no added moisture.
The resulting pellets are often slightly charred from high temperature and the electrical energy
consumption is much more than would be needed if moisture were added. The high fat content of these
materials provides lubrication, but this does not soften the fibre sufficiently to avoid excessive heating
caused by friction. The ring die and rolls of a pellet mill exposed to high temperatures show metal fatigue
and must be replaced often. The proper conditioning of dehydrated alfalfa meal will permit the
manufacture of over 2 000 tons of pellets during the life of a standard die of 40 mm thickness.
Overall, the texture of a soft feed mixture is changed from a meal-like material with bulk density
approximately 0.4 g/cc, to a pellet with bulk density of 0.5 - 0.6 g/cc. Within the ring die, pressures of 75600 kg/cm2 are attained. Feed mixtures containing large amounts of fibrous ingredients often result in
pellets too hard for gastric breakdown and digestion in fish. On the other hand, high-fat feeds and an
excess of moisture cause poor quality pellets. Pellet quality may be defined as a certain hardness or
water stability which assures efficient use without loss in handling on land or in water.
Feed formulation and operation of the pellet mill may be balanced to supply fish with a feed that is
acceptable, available, and easily digested. The inter-dependent variables present in ingredient selection
are subjects for research in each area of fish culture and for each fish species. Variables resulting from
mechanical operation of the equipment may be listed here:
(a) Pellet die thickness as related to diameter of hole is a factor in pellet quality.
(b) Speed of rotation should also be considered for each die thickness/hole diameter combination.
(c) The speed at which feed is introduced into the feed-conditioning chamber affects the
moisture/temperature relationship which in turn relates to pellet quality.
(d) The amount of steam added to a given volume of feed should be in balance such that the drive motor
on the pellet mill is operating at its maximum amperage. The opening of the steam valve at the pellet mill
has a direct relation to the amount of water entering the feed as steam at any given steam pressure.
(e) Atmospheric conditions in the factory, especially relative humidity, which pre-condition the ingredients
before processing, will affect die selection and operational settings.
All of the above items must be examined for each feed formula, which shows that pelleting is more of an
art than a science. It should be emphasized again that the pellet mill operates most efficiently when the
motor amperage use is optimum for the voltage available. It is important to watch the ammeter gauge
frequently during pelleting. At the start of a pelleting operation, a small amount of soft dry feed enters the
pellet chamber for compression and the gauge will respond to the load with less than optimum results.
The addition of steam results in a lowered reading, showing the lubricating effect. More dry feed may now
enter the conditioning chamber and, as it reaches the die, the ammeter will move to a higher reading.
Additional steam will lower this. By adjusting the dry feed intake and the steam valve opening, a stable
condition will result where the motor is operating at its maximum rated amperage and pellet production
will be at maximum capacity. These operational conditions normally coincide with maximum pellet quality
afforded by the composition of the feed mix (see below).
Figure 4a is a cut-out diagram of a large-capacity (200 hp) pellet mill. Although power transmission by
means of a V-belt drive is shown (1), gear drive coupling of motor to the main shaft (2) is also possible.
Feed from a surge bin (3) is metered into the steam conditioning chamber by a variable speed screw
feeder (4). Paddles shown in the steam conditioning chamber (5) agitate the feed to ensure even blending
of feed and steam. The conditioned feed is then fed by means of a distributor auger (6) into the pelletizing
chamber (7) where it is extruded through the die (8). As the die rotates, feed is pressed against its inner
wall by a set of 3 rollers (9). Due to its high rotational speed and heavy load, the die has to be securely
harnessed to the shaft. This is achieved by means of a two-piece die cover assembly (10) and 12 strong
bolts (11). The rollers usually have a hardened shell with indentations on the surface to provide traction
and to reduce slippage of feed. Feed within the pelletizing chamber is continuously redistributed by
adjustable feed ploughs (12). Extruded pellets of appropriate lengths are cut off by an assembly of knives
(not shown) mounted on the inside of the die casing.
Fig. 4a High capacity pellet mill (Sprout, Waldron & Co.)
Figure 4b shows how pellets are extruded from a small vertical die assembly with two rollers.
A control valve introduces dry steam into a header from which, through several port-holes, steam enters
the conditioning chamber in contact with dry feed. Between this valve and the steam generator or boiler
are a strainer and trap to remove condensate, providing only dry steam in the mill. At the discharge end of
the conditioning chamber is a gate to restrict feed from immediately leaving and allows more time for
moisture to be absorbed into the feed. A chute or funnel usually guides moisture-conditioned feed into the
pellet chamber where compression and extrusion occur. If the ammeter goes much above the optimum
reading, this chute may be quickly raised to prevent a choke-up of feed in the die holes. From the pellet
chamber, feed may be directed by means of a butterfly valve to the cooler or on the floor for inspection.
Another variable that may be introduced into the operation of a pellet mill is the rotational speed of the
die. For the production of small diameter pellets (i.e., 3 mm or less) high rotation speeds are used. This
results in a thinner layer of soft feed inside the die ring ahead of the rolls, and for a given volume of feed
the efficiency of pelleting and pellet hardness are improved. Die speeds may be changed by replacing the
pulley on the main motor shaft of the pellet mill. Speeds generally range from 130-400 rpm. Feeds-of low
bulk density are formed best in dies rotating at higher speeds.
4.2 Influence of Feed Composition

Additional factors known to influence pellet quality include bulk density of the soft feed, its texture,
chemical composition (fat, fibre, carbohydrate, protein, and moisture) and prevailing ambient conditions of
temperature and relative humidity. Grinding improves pellet quality by reducing air spaces between
particles, allowing closer surface to surface contact for a given volume of feed; i.e., it increases bulk
density. Large pieces of any ingredient in a feed formula result in weak spots in the pellet, especially if
these are fibrous or bony. Grinding also increases the total surface area of a given weight of feed, thereby
allowing more space for steam condensation during the conditioning process. This results in a higher feed
temperature and more water absorption which together, within the time available, increases gelatinization
of raw starch. Starch gelatinization has been mentioned previously (Section 3), but since it is the key to
water-stable pellets, further discussion may be beneficial. Starch gelatinization is the rupture of starch
granules, thereby allowing the linear and cyclic molecules to hydrate and become sticky in the presence
of water. Gelatinization occurs by mechanical means such as grinding, pressure, and by hot water. Soft
feed at an environmental temperature of 25C can be brought to a temperature of 85C by the addition of
4 to 6 percent moisture from steam. Frictional heat due to passage of feed through the pellet mill adds 2
or 3 degrees of temperature. The moisture, temperature, and time involved combine to impart a sticky
surface to starch-containing ingredients which, when subsequently dried, improved pellet hardness and
water stability.
Since fat and moisture lubricate the soft feed as it passes through holes in the ring die, reducing friction of
compression and extrusion, a certain level of these are necessary for pelleting. If the total crude fat in a
feed formula is much more than 8-10 percent or the moisture is much above 15 percent, too much
lubrication is provided and a poor quality pellet in terms of hardness results. Dies may be designed to
accommodate high-fat feeds by tapering or slanting the Holes or by increasing the hole depth in relation
to its diameter. Dietary fat in the final feed may be increased beyond that in the formula by spraying liquid
fat or oil onto pellets or crumbles after they leave the pellet mill. An external coating of 5-6 percent
stabilized fat does not appreciably soften the pellet except externally, and this may be a lure both in odour
and texture for certain fishes.
In some countries, high humidity may cause problems in pelleting. Sun-dried ingredients and those which
absorb moisture on storage (i.e. marine products contain sodium chloride which is hygroscopic) may need
to be balanced with low-fat, fibrous ingredients or limited in their use. Low-fat cereals or cereal by-product
cassava cake and pressed copra may be used in high-moisture, high-fat feeds to provide resistence to
compression and extrusion (necessary to form a hard pellet). If the formula contains sugar or molasses,
low-frictional heat is an asset, for carmelization occurs at about 60C.
Fig. 4b Pellet extrusion (arrows indicate direction of rotation of moving parts)
4.3 Cooling and Drying

The temperature imparted to pellets in the process of their manufacture assists the removal of moisture
by the air-drying process. Generally, within ten minutes after extrusion, hard pellets are cooled to ambient
temperature and brought to a moisture content slightly above that of the entering soft feed. This may be
done by spreading pellets in a thin layer on the floor and blowing air over them. Commercially, it is done
by passing the hot pellets through a vertical or a horizontal chamber designed to bring air at ambient
temperature into intimate contact with the outer surface of the pellets.
4.3.1 Vertical cooler-dryer
Moisture added as steam, provides a large volume of lubricating material with a small weight. In addition,
the temperature imparted to pellets by steam is a major factor in their subsequent drying. If air at ambient
temperature is drawn or blown through the newly formed pellets, its ability to take up water depends on
an increase in temperature. Air has an avidity for moisture directly related to its temperature. Air passing
over hot pellets will increase in temperature and thus increase its water-holding ability. If cold or warm
water were used to lubricate soft feed before pelleting, the final pellet temperature would not reach that
necessary to gelatinize raw starch or significantly increase the ability of air to remove moisture in the
cooler. Heated air may be used in the cooling-drying process, but this is generally uneconomical. Heating
newly-formed, wet pellets on trays in an oven to attain drying does, however, result in very water-stable
feed.
A vertical cooler-dryer is shown in Figure 5. Pellets are discharged from the mill into the top of a flat-sided
hopper and dropped into an attached cooling bin. This is divided in the middle with a plenum connected to
the suction side of a blower fan. The weight of pellets filling the cooler pivots perforated louvers on the
two sides to allow cool air to permeate the hot pellets, removing moisture, and cooling the pellets before
entering the plenum for discharge through the blower. Pellets leave the bin at the bottom via discharge
gates at a rate regulated by the amount of hot pellets entering the cooler. This ensures uniform cooling
and drying of pellets.
Pellets gradually fill the cooler section of this system until they reach a diaphragm located near the top of
the enclosed hopper. Pressure on this activates the discharge gates and the pellets are discharged until
the level is below the diaphragm. A bucket elevator or drag screw conveys cooled pellets to either a
storage or bagging bin or to a truck for bulk delivery. This type of cooler is preferred when space is limited
and is generally more economical than the horizontal type.
4.3.2 Horizontal cooler-dryer
Coolers of the horizontal type consist of a moving wire belt or sectional belt of perforated metal trays
which convey pellets from the discharge spout of the pellet mill (Figure 6). The depth of pellets on this belt
and its speed of travel may be adjusted so that pellets leave for storage at a desired moisture and
temperature. Horizontal coolers may be a single deck with pellets discharged at the end opposite the
intake, or a double deck with two belts in the same enclosure; pellets return to the same end as they
entered. Air from a centrifugal fan is made to flow from the cooler bottom through the layer of pellets. As in
the vertical cooler, air is discharged into a dust-collecting system which removes the "fines" or particles
which separate from the pellets. These are returned to the mill continuously for re-pelleting.
4.4 Crumbles
Cooled pellets may be ground on corrugated rolls and the resulting product sifted into various sizes of
granules or crumbles. For small fish, the physical properties of crumbles are often more desired than a
meal ration and easier to manufacture than a small pellet. Crumbles provide a multi-faceted surface to
reflect light, this being a lure for sight feeders. They ensure that all the ingredients of a formula will be
ingested, whereas components of meal feeds separate on entering water, allowing selection of certain
ingredients, and the-solution or colloidal suspension of others.
Fig. 5 Vertical cooler-dryer (Sprout, Waldron & Company) (a)
Fig. 5 Vertical cooler-dryer (Sprout, Waldron & Company) (b)
Fig. 5 Vertical cooler-dryer (Sprout, Waldron & Company) (c)
Fig. 6 Horizontal cooler-dryer (Sprout, Waldron & Company)
Production of pellets of 4 mm or more in diameter proceeds at a higher rate than when feed is
compressed into a smaller diameter. Pellet dies of small diameter holes are expensive and the time
consumed in changing dies can make the manufacture of small amounts of fingerling feed quite costly.
Generally, crumblizing rolls should be complementary equipment in any pelleting operation.
4.5 Screening or Grading

Some sifting is necessary in the production of pellets and crumbles. Small fragments (fines) are produced
as hot, moist pellets are cut off from the die inside the pellet chamber, and as pellets pass through the
cooling and conveying equipment. Fines may be returned to the pellet mill for reprocessing or used as
feed for fry.
There are many types of sifting and grading systems both manual and mechanized. Most shake or rotate
from side to side with material passing over screens of specified openings and covered to confine dust to
the equipment. Sifting is the last process in manufacture of pellets and crumbles and this equipment
should be located just above the bagging or final discharge bin.
4.6 Use of Hard Pellets
Test feeding in dirt-bottomed ponds or on feeding platforms with minnows, goldfish, catfish, trout, carp,
and buffalo fish has shown that for fingerlings and larger fish, pellets provide a physical property which
improves the economy of using artificial feeds. Very small fish have shown better growth and feed
conversion with pelleted feeds, even those which disintegrate before ingestion, than with the same
formula in meal form. The concentration of feed in a limited space and the inability of fish to select and
reject certain ingredients, are factors in favour of using pellets. As fish grow larger, many species stop
accepting small feed particles and suspended solids as supplied in meal-type feeds, and most of these
"fines" are lost or become fertilizer. To be effective for some fish, feeds must retain a bite-size texture.
For fish with gill-rakers managed by a feeding programme of planktonic blooms and artificial supplemental
feeds, pellets may be uneconomical if sufficient natural food is available. However, in newly-filled ponds
or those with new bottoms and in tanks, pools, and raceways, a complete feed in pellet form has resulted
in better feed conversion than meal feeds. Once a natural food forage has been established in a pond
and vitamin additives can be eliminated from the formula, the economics of pelleting versus meal feeding
should be studied in terms of manufacturing cost and feed conversion. It has been demonstrated that
pellets can be used to selectively feed larger fish, permitting them to grow rapidly to market size without
competing with smaller fish for the same feed.
A series of tests on acceptability of pellets by catfish is of interest here 1/. Channel catfish
(Ictalurus punctatus), blue catfish (Ictalurus catus) were observed over two growth seasons. Pellets of a
standard formula (see Table 1) were placed on saran screen trays of two types. One about 60 cm 120
cm was lowered to the pond bottom and raised for loading and inspection by attachment to a tripod
located on the levee (pond bank). The other type was free to be placed directly on the pond bottom at any
location and loaded and raised by hand. Pellets were also placed on the pond bottom and recovered by
Ekman dredge. Fish were seined at intervals of ten minutes to an hour after feeding for analyses of
stomach contents.
Tests conducted at the Fish Farming Experimental Station, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Stuttgart,
Arkansas
1/
Table 1 Water Stability of Test Pellets made from a Standard Formula as Measured by the
Percentage of Solids Retained on a Screen after Ten Minutes in Quiet Water
Treatment
Percent Retained
5% gelatinized corn solids (dry)
85.0
5% bentonite
88.6
Control formula - unground
90.0
5% guar meal
90.2
5% gelatinized corn solids - wet
92.0
Control formula ground through 2 mm screen
93.0
5% rice mill dust, 75 microns diameter
93.0
5% soybean flour
94.0
5% lignin sulfonate
94.0
5% rice mill dust sifted through 180 microns
96.2
98.2
98.5
Pellets of 3 mm diameter were readily accepted by fish weighing from 5 to 1 500 grams, all fish ingesting
pellets of 3 to 9 mm length. Fish weighing more than 225 grams accepted pellets of 5 mm diameter 5
mm length, and fish 454 grams and over accepted 6 mm diameter 6 mm length pellets. Hard pellets of
13 mm diameter 13 mm length were not readily accepted by any test fish.
Ten minutes after feeding in water at temperatures of 25 to 35 C, from five to nine percent of total fish
weight was wet stomach contents. This was equivalent to one to three percent fish weight as dry pellets.
In the process of ingesting pellets, fish consumed water so that stomach contents were found to be 70 to
80 percent moisture. One hour after feeding, about 75 percent of the total gastro-intestinal contents
remained in the stomach, considerable amounts of protein and fat were gone from the food mass in the
intestines, the water content in the stomach had increased, and the fish abdominal cavity was still greatly
distended.
4.7 Hazards of Feeding Hard Pellets

For some fish there is a danger of over-feeding with hard pellets, causing swelling and rupture of the
stomach. Over-feeding also mechanically forces pellets past the point of gastric activity, resulting in
inefficient digestion. Another hazard with use of hard pellets may occur during winter feeding when fish
ingest a full stomach capacity on a warm day followed by a period of cold weather. This may result in
fermentation of undigested feed in the stomach with gas formation. Fish may float upside down, exposed
to extremes in air temperatures and predation.
4.8 Pellet Hardness and Stability

Ideal pellets lure fish by their size, shape, and organoleptic properties and are available in water without
loss of components. This last factor, called "pellet quality" is important for good feed conversion. A
measure of pellet quality as applied to dry feeding conditions is the amount of small broken pieces of fines
created during handling. this may be related to the abrasive pressure required to break them down.
However, dry pellet quality expressed as hardness or in the percentage of fines does not necessarily
correlate with water stability. The average high-quality feed pellet made for poultry, swine, and beef, high
in cereal grains, becomes mushy within minutes after immersion in water. There is evidence that coarsetextured feeds, water soluble, and hygroscopic ingredients weaken pellet structure in water, allowing
components to separate and making the feed only partially accepted.
A laboratory technique for measuring pellet stability in water is useful for establishing feed formulation and
processing specifications. One such test which has given reproducible values and shown good correlation
with pellet recovery from feeding platforms and bottom sampling; devices, is as follows:
(a) 10 grams of pellets of equal diameter and length are distributed uniformly on a screen tray
approximately 100 cm2 in an area with raised sides. Mesh openings are slightly less than pellet diameter.
(b) Duplicate samples are lowered into quiet water of an aquarium or tank. If clumping or floating occurs,
a piece of cut screen is placed on top of the pellets to hold them under water in a scattered position.
(c) After 10 minutes the trays are removed from water, slanted to drain, and placed in a moisture oven at
130C for 2 hours, then cooled in a dessicator.
(d) The residue on the screen is recorded as dry solids not lost in water. Total solids in 10 grams of air-dry
pellets are determined by oven-dry duplicate samples. Nutrients lost by leaching in water may be
measured at this point by freeze-drying the residue on trays and comparing the chemical analysis with
untreated pellets.
(e) The ratio of dry solids on the screen after 10 minutes in water to total dry solids in air-dry pellets, is
used as a comparative measure of pellet water stability.
During the early days of using hard pellets for fish culture, a random selection of commercial feed was
examined for water stability by this technique and none was found to have more than 60 percent retention
after 10 minutes in water. To obtain more stable fish feed pellets and thereby improve feed conversion,
guidelines for the industry have been proposed as follows:
(i) Before pelleting, grind the mixed feed through a 2 mm screen to an effective size of 125 microns.
(ii) Replace at least 5 percent of a non-essential ingredient with an organic flour such as rice dust, dried
wood pulp liquor, wheat endosperm, or other binder.1/
(iii) Operate the pellet mill at its optimum rated amperage for maximum compression and extrusion
pressures.
(iv) Add sufficient dry steam to condition the soft feed to a temperature of 85-90C, thus causing
gelatinization of raw starch on the surface of all starch-containing ingredients.
(v) Cool and dry pellets before conveying to storage or bag-off bins.
Formulae containing 25 - 30 percent ground wheat or byproducts of wheat endosperm, may not require
the use of a binder.
1/
Table 1 shows the formula of a standard feed used in testing water stability of pellets. It is typical of
commercial catfish rations used in the southern part of the United States. Basically it complies with the
requirements of a 30 percent protein feed, 25 percent of which is of animal source, with a protein to
calorie ratio of 90 (grams protein in 100 grams feed 100 divided by kcal/100 grams feed).
Table 2 Physical Measurements Of Pellet Stability of a Standard Catfish Feed
Water stability % retained 10

minutes in running water
Broken by Stokes pellet

hardness tester
Unground, no steam, thin die
21.5
zero pressure
Unground, no steam, thick die
24.3
zero pressure
Unground, added steam, thin die
31.3
1 kg
Unground, added steam, thick die
78.9
3 kg
Ground, no steam, thin die
65.8
3 kg
Ground, no steam thick die
74.5
4 kg
Ground, added steam, thin die
84.9
8 kg
Ground, added steam, thick die
88.0
13 kg
Ground plus 20% gelatinized potato starch

and 6% added water, no steam
98.9
20 kg
Process variable
Note: Water movement through the test container may be used as an alternative to use of quiet water.
Table 2 shows the water stability of ground and unground standard feed (see Table 1) and the effects of
replacing 5 percent of rice bran with various organic and mineral materials suggested as binders.
Formulae for common and mirror carp are similar to those for catfish with the exception that ground wheat
will replace rice bran or wheat offal. High-wheat feeds are very water-stable if properly steam conditioned
before compression and extrusion in a pellet mill.
Feeds low in, starch require a thick ring die and extra steam for conditioning. Special binders of starch
origin provide some degree of water stability for pellets made with low-starch formulae.
4.9 Floating Pellets

Fish feeds may be pelleted by what is sometimes called the "extrusion" process, thereby expanding
rather than compressing the various ingredients. Variations in formulation and processing allow a wide
range in bulk density; 0.25. to 0.3 g/cc being common for fish feeding. This feature makes them attractive
for certain types of fish culture. Fish may be observed while eating and the amount of feed limited to that
which is accepted. The number of fish in a water impoundment and their health can be observed without
sampling.
In general, the processing of expansion of extrusion consists of:
(a) conditioning soft feed which is in meal form to contain 25-30 percent water,
(b) conveying this conditioned feed by auger into a pressure-sealed cylinder,
(c) injecting steam, thus decreasing friction of material within the cylinder and increasing gelatinization of
raw starch,
(d) extruding to atmospheric pressure, almost exploding the material through holes in the die plate at the
end of the cylinder,
(e) cutting off the extruding ribbon at the outside of the die plate by a rotating knife, and
(f) drying the pellets in a high-temperature oven at about 120 C to a moisture content suitable for storage.
Several details should be added to this general process description for a better understanding of floating
pellets. The feed formula is important in obtaining a desired expanding texture. Cereal grains can be
expanded to a very low bulk density, whereas protein concentrates low in starch may remain unaltered in
bulk density. Raw starch is a requirement of a good floating pellet; 90 percent being gelatinized during the
30 to 60 seconds the feed is in the expander cylinder. Pressure builds up to several atmospheres due to
forward passage of the material into a smaller volume. Superimposed steam causes a high product
temperature, changing the consistency of the material from a free-flowing meal to a dough. By the sudden
release of pressure at the discharge end, the feed assumes a "puffed rice" texture like some breakfast
foods and snacks.
Following oven drying, a standard pellet cooler is often used to lower product temperature after internal
moisture is less than 13 percent. Even with this treatment, previous high temperatures partially destroy
heat-labile vitamins and decrease the availability of some amino acids. Rather than over-fortifying the
formula before pelleting, as is done for preparation of hard pellets, heat-sensitive additives may be
sprayed onto expanded pellets after extrusion.
Biological tests under pond conditions with natural food available have shown no difference in growth of
catfish and goldfish using a formula feed processed by hard pelleting and by the extrusion process. Also
no significant difference was found chemically in total crude protein or in individual amino acids for
several formula feeds each prepared as hard pellets and as extruded pellets. However, testing fish growth
in tanks and cages has revealed a partial destruction of some nutrients in extruded feeds.
There is evidence that fish fed with floating pellets contain more liver and body fat than those fed the
same formula feed processed as a hard pellet. This may be due to the increased digestibility of the
carbohydrate part of the ration. The expansion process is expensive compared with other methods of
feed manufacture in terms of equipment cost, heat used in generating steam and in oven-drying, and in
loss of nutrients. It may be concluded that the value of extruded pellets-is best measured by practical
feeding tests using data on feed conversion, cost of management, and acceptability by fish as deciding
factors.
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LIST OF APPENDICES
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%20using%20vernier%20caliper%20pdf%20in%20inches%2Cmm%2Cdecximals&oq=how%20to%20measure
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s&pbx=1&ion=1&cad=cbv&bvch=u&sei=HyziV5PJN8jUjwPtg4KoBg&rct=j
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Feed Mill Management

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q=micromixers+for+feeds&oq=micromixers&aqs=chrome.0.69i59j69i57.4168j0j7&sourceid=chrome&ie=UT
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micromixers for feeds - Google Search

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Once all of the ingredients have been weighed up in the proper amounts, the next step in the feed manufacturing
process is to blend them together. This is done using some type of mixing apparatus. In this article we will look at
different types of batch mixers used in the commercial and integrated feed industries.
As the word mix indicates, the mixing process involves blending together a group of various types of dry ingredients
to form a blended product. It may also be a process where liquid ingredients may be added and blended with dry
ingredients to make a homogeneous mixture of all. The uniformity of the mixed product is of extreme importance.
Different methods of testing the mix uniformity or consistency have been developed.
The most common method used in the feed industry is the Coefficient of Variation (Cv). Prior to starting the mixing, a
marker ingredient of known characteristic or strength is place in the mix as an added ingredient or an included
ingredient in the mix. After the mixing is complete, 10 samples taken from different areas in the mixer are tested and
compared for the marker characteristic or strength.
Differences in the marker character or strength between samples are then compared and the coefficient of variation
based on the deviation between the samples is calculated. A mix is normally considered well mixed if the Cv is a
value of 10 or less. A standard procedure for this was developed at Kansas State University and is an ASABE
standard. A description of the process using salt as the marker is described in detail in Feed Manufacturing
Technology V, Appendix D Mixer Testing, published by the American Feed Industry Association.
Another factor in choosing a mixer is the length of mixing (cycle) time required to get a mix with a Cv of 10 or less. In
earlier eras, mix time lengths were not important as long as the mixing was complete. Early vertical mixers often
required as long as 20 minutes or more to completely mix a batch. A 4-minute mixing time was normal for single shaft
horizontal mixers.
In todays feed industry, higher production capacities and shorter mixing times are in demand. This has brought about
new designs for horizontal mixers and the introduction of the twin shaft mixers with mix times of as little as 30 to 60
seconds.
Before discussing different types of mixing actions and mixers, it is important to review mixer capacities. Most often
mixer capacities are described by the weight of the batch size being mixed in the mixer. Thus, a 4-ton mixer
supposedly mixes a 4-ton batch of feed. This is somewhat true if the density of the mixture is 40 pounds per cubic
foot. But a mixer is not a scale. Its actual capacity is measured by the cubic volume of a mixture it will hold and mix
properly. Thus, a 4-ton batch with an average density of 40 pounds per cubic foot requires 200 cubic feet of volume in
the mixer to handle the batch.
If the average density of the batch is only 30 pounds per cubic foot, the 200-cubic-foot mixer will only hold and mix a
3-ton batch. Likewise, if the batch has an average density of 60 pounds per cubic foot, that same 200-cubic-foot
mixer will hold a 6-ton batch. Most mixers used in commercial feed manufacturing are built strength-wise for mixing
batches with maximum densities of 40 to 50 pounds per cubic foot. Heavier constructed mixers are available and
should be specified when choosing mixers to mix higher density batches such as minerals or premixes.
Dry ingredients should be introduced into a mixer in the following order: ground grains and other major ingredients,
minor ingredients, and finally, low inclusion or hand-added ingredients. These ingredients are then mixed until fully
mixed (dry mix time) and the liquids are added to the mixture and the batch mixed further until fully mixed (wet mix
time). There are basically three types of mixing actions available in commercial feed mixers: shearing, tumbling and
cross-flow styles.
Vertical Mixers
Vertical mixers are still used in small on-farm operations but seldom found in todays commercial feed industry. The
ingredients were put into the mixer at floor level and mixed by elevating the materials to the upper part of the mixer
housing by vertical augers.
From the top of the auger tubes, the materials fell by gravity down to the bottom of the mixer where they were again
picked up by the vertical augers and carried back to the top for another cycle. Differences in ingredient densities,
particle sizes and particle shapes caused the mixes to separate when falling from the top back to the bottom of the
mixer.
For some ingredients it was very difficult to get the batch completely mixed. Additionally, some of the ingredients were
difficult to pick up by the vertical screws and remained in the bottom of the mixer unmixed.
Horizontal Mixers
A majority of the mixers used in the commercial and integrated feed industry are the horizontal style. There are three
basic styles of horizontal mixers: ribbon, paddle and twin shaft. These mixers are enclosed in round bottom housings.
The single shaft horizontal mixer has been used for years in feed manufacturing. It consists of a horizontal center
shaft with two or more rows of opposing ribbons mounted on support arms.
The mixing action occurs as one set of ribbons move the material one direction and the other row pushes the material
in the opposite direction. This creates a shearing and blending action.
A second type of single shaft horizontal mixer uses a single horizontal center shaft with arms with paddles mounted
on them extending from the shaft. These mixers are available with different shapes and configurations of the paddle
surfaces.
This type of mixer is primarily used for blending hard to handle or abrasive ingredients, or mixes with large additions
of liquid ingredients. These mixers also create a shearing movement and blending, but also add a lifting movement to
action.
The most commonly used mixer in new construction or remodeling is the newer twin shaft horizontal mixer. In these
mixers there are two side-by-side counter rotating ribbon or paddle assemblies similar to placing two single shaft
mixers in the same housing. These mixers have the mixing advantages of a single shaft mixer with the added ability
to cross mix the ingredients between each of the assemblies.
If paddles are used, they can be overlapped to create a fluidizing zone between the two shaft assemblies. These
mixers have the advantage of both lengthwise mixing as in the single shaft type and cross mixing between the
assemblies.
These combined mixing actions provide for full or complete mixing in as little as a minute or less depending on the
ingredients being used.
Single shaft horizontal mixers are designed to be full for proper mixing action. This means that the mixture should fill
to the point that the top of the ribbon or paddles is covered. If they are overfilled, the materials above the ribbon or
paddle tips do not get mixed well and often just float on top of the mixing action.
The twin shaft horizontal mixers, due to their cross mixing actions, can properly mix batches that fill only a portion of
the mixer volume. This works nicely for mixing various size batches in the same mixer. In some cases, using a twin
shaft horizontal mixer, the batch size can be as small as 10% to 20% of the full mixer capacities.
Drum Mixer
Another mixer is the drum type. It is a horizontal cylinder turned by an external drive. There are no rotating internal
parts. The mixing is done by a series of vanes attached to the interior surface of the drum. As the drum rotates, these
vanes cause a free-fall action that folds, divides and combines the ingredients into a uniform mix that is blended by
the constant rotating motion. Without internal moving parts, the mixer is able to gently mix breakable ingredients or
materials such as flaked grains. It also is able to mix hard to handle ingredients due to its mixing action.
This mixer is charged and discharged through openings located high on the front (end) of the drum. Liquids may be
added by spraying the liquid onto the tumbling ingredients using a liquid addition accessory. The drum uses much
less energy than the standard horizontal or vertical mixer as no rotating shafts are used internally. This mixer can also
do small batches.
When liquids are added into any mixer, they must be sprayed into the mix so they actually are sprayed on to the
ingredients and not on to the surfaces of the mixer itself. For batch mixes, it is best to limit the amount of liquid added
to no more than 4% maximum of the batch weight, but higher liquid addition rates are often possible in horizontal
paddle mixers and drum mixers.
Summary
When choosing a batch mixer, it is important to know the types and characteristics of materials to be mixed, the
amount(s) of liquids to be added in the mixture during mixing, the sizes of batches required, and the time available for
the mixing operation to meet production requirements.
It is wise to look at different mixer manufacturers and options before deciding on the correct batch mixer for your
needs. Most manufacturers will gladly run a test for you to confirm the suitability of their equipment.
In a future article we will look at continuous mixing system equipment.
Fred Fairchild is feed science professor emeritus in the Department of Grain Science and Industry at Kansas State
University. Prior to coming to Kansas State in 1994, he worked in the industry designing, constructing and
commissioning numerous mill facilities. He is a licensed professional engineer. He can be reached by e-mail at fjf@kstate.edu.
Introduction[edit]
The process of manufacturing animal feed is a means whereby raw materials of widely ranging physical,
chemical and nutritional composition can be converted into a homogenous mixture suitable for producing a
desired nutritional response in the animal to which the mixture is fed. The process is basically a physical one
and chemical changes are few. It should be remembered however that some raw materials will have undergone
extensive processing prior to inclusion into a mixed feed, for example, extraction of oil from oilseeds by solvent
or mechanical extraction, heat treatment of soya beans or other beans to denature anti-nutritive factors, or the
production of fishmeal and meat meal. These processes will not be considered here and reference should be
made to Appendix 6 for further information on these subjects.
The feed manufacturing process may be considered to be made up of several unit operations which, in almost
all circumstances, include the following:
raw material, storage and selection
raw material weighing
raw material grinding
mixing of dry ingredients and addition of liquids
pelleting of mixed feed (optional)
blended feed bagging, storage and despatch.
Their sequence and the size and sophistication of equipment vary with the output of feed required as well as
differences in manufacturer's design. For the purposes of illustration and for the development of cost models in
Chapter 5, four levels of output will be considered as follows:
Production level
Typical design
500 kg per day
Shovel mixing
200 kg per hour
Cement mixer
1 tonne per hour
Farm-scale mill and mix plant
2.5 tonnes per hour
Small industrial-scale feed plant
Selection and layout of feed milling equipment [edit]

A number of manufacturers supply ranges of feed milling equipment and will advise on the selection of suitable
models if provided with full information on the proposed operation. This must include the proposed capacity of
the mill, the types of raw materials available, the types of livestock feed to be produced, and the characteristics
of the power supply available. The chosen site for feed production should be readily accessible to transport, as
near as possible to raw material sources and to the livestock owners, free from flooding, and with suitable
power and water supplies available.
There are no set specifications for the layout of a feed milling operation, each being designed according to
individual circumstances. The planning of larger mills requires the services of skilled engineers and
draughtsmen, but small mills can usually be assembled from modules supplied by equipment manufacturers.
Several manufacturers sell 'Mill + Mix' units which can be used for meal production, provided no difficult raw
materials are to be used. In recent years there has been increasing interest in the concept of 'packaged' or
'containerized' feed mills where items of machinery are assembled within a space frame and wired up to a
control panel at the factory. The unit is then shipped as a whole within a container. On arrival it is placed on a
level (concrete) base, and the electricity supply connected to the control panel.
Raw material, storage and selection[edit]

In most circumstances the raw materials coming into a feed process area will have been requested by the
nutritionist as being necessary to meet the nutrient requirements of the diet to be manufactured. In developing
countries raw materials will normally be delivered or collected from a supplier in hessian, jute, cotton, paper, or
possibly loosely woven polythene sacks. A standard size of sack may not be used for each consignment and
care should be taken to check-weigh as many bags as possible since, for many small-scale operations, a
weigh bridge for weighing a lorry before or after unloading may not be available. Bags are often man-handled,
although the use of a small sack truck (see Figure 1) will considerably ease the burden of carrying heavy
materials within a feed mill area. In some circumstances, and especially with larger feed mills, raw materials
may be delivered in bulk, necessitating appropriate handling and storage facilities.
In order to ensure a continuous supply of raw materials at the mill, when some may only be seasonally
available on the market, and to take advantage of price fluctuations, some form of storage will be necessary.
The particular method chosen for raw material storage will depend on the local circumstances, but in areas
where labour is cheap and plentiful and capital funds scarce, it is likely that storage in bags will be preferable.
Raw materials should arrive in good condition and in sacks which have not been used for the storage of
fertilizer, pesticides or chemicals. Contamination by string, large pieces of metal, wood or stones which could
cause extensive damage to machinery can normally be removed on a coarse metal grid fitted over the sack
tipping-in point of the feed mill, and permanent magnets will normally remove any tramp ferrous metal which
may enter the system, particularly before entering the grinder, mixer or pelleter.
Storage areas must be waterproof and well-ventilated, and provide protection against infestation by insects and
vermin which can quickly cause substantial losses in weight. If materials are to be stored in bags they should
be kept in a building having a concrete floor. The roof and walls need only to be lightly constructed provided
that they are pest and waterproof. The bags should be stacked a few inches above floor level, for example, on
wooden pallets (see Figure 1), and away from walls. Raw materials may also be stored in bulk either in silos
constructed from concrete or steel or in bins formed with partitions in conventional stores. Bulk storage
normally entails a greater investment in capital equipment but lower operating costs. If raw materials are to be
stored in this way it is essential that the bin manufacturers are informed of the raw materials to be handled,
since some raw materials which have poor flow characteristics tend to form bridges of material in the bin base
thus preventing their discharge. In general, raw materials of low bulk density have poor flow characteristics and
those of high bulk density have good flow characteristics. Raw materials which have poor flow properties
normally require large diameter augers for their transfer.
Raw materials will vary from country to country and from region to region and will have widely ranging bulk
densities (weight for a given volume). These differences in bulk density must be taken into account when
determining the space required for the storage of raw materials and finished products. Appendix 4, Table XVIII
lists typical bulk density values for common feed raw materials and indicates the areas required for their
storage.
The proper storage of raw materials and of finished feeds is not only essential to prevent physical losses, but is
also an important aspect of quality control which will be discussed in more detail later. Where the construction
of stores is to be undertaken, it is recommended that advice be obtained either from relevant publications or
from other appropriate sources such as the Storage Department of ODNRI.
Figure 1 - Sketches of feed milling equipment
Raw material weighing[edit]

The accurate weighing of raw materials according to the formulation for a given ration is perhaps the most
important unit operation involved in feed manufacture, since no amount of mechanical processing can make up
for any deficiencies in nutrients which have been omitted from the mixture. The point at which weighing occurs
in the feed milling process will depend upon the design of the mill. Raw materials may be selected from store,
weighed and then subjected to grinding and mixing, or materials may be pre-ground, then weighed and mixed.
There are advantages and disadvantages in both approaches and their choice will depend upon the raw
materials to be processed and the design considerations of machinery manufacturers. In small units, raw
materials in sacks can be weighed individually on a platform scale with either a dial or lever-arm movement
(see Figure 1), or if bags are known to be of accurate weight they can be counted and any excess needed for
the formulation weighed on the scales. Lever-arm scales are cheaper to purchase than dial scales, tend to be
more robust, but are less convenient in use. Where possible, it is advisable that all scales be fitted with an
adjustable tare, so that operators do not need to make calculations when allowing for the weights of containers
into which raw materials may be tipped for weighing.
Large bin-type weighers (see Figure 1) are often used for raw materials which have been pre-ground or are
free flowing and discharge readily from storage bins or silos. Bin-type weighers may be mobile or stationary.
Inline weighers which measure the quantity of material flowing over a small electronic sensor and volumetric
dischargers are also available. Units which quantify raw material by volume tend to be more applicable to small
feed units handling cereals of constant bulk density, and do not often find application in tropical countries where
ingredients have diverse bulk-density characteristics. Designs of weighers are many and various but the above
have been given to illustrate typical machines in use in feed mills.
The weighing of raw materials requires great care and inaccuracies must be kept to a minimum. It should be
noted that errors in the weighing of small quantities of raw materials often have far greater influence on the
growth performance of animals than errors in the weighing of large quantities of material, for example, the
omission of say, 25 kg of bran from a mixture requiring 400 kg of bran is of much less significance nutritionally
than the omission of 1.5 kg of vitamin pre-mix say from the same mixture requiring only 2.5 kg of pre-mix. It
may therefore be necessary to purchase a scale to weigh small quantities, of up to 25 kg, with an accuracy of
100g and a greater capacity scale, for example up to 500 kg with an accuracy of 2.0 kg. The use of
accurate scales is of particular importance when handling expensive and/or potent raw materials such as
vitamins and medicinal additives which are added at low inclusion rates.
Raw material grinding[edit]

In the sequence of unit operations involved in feed milling, raw material grinding may occur before or after
weighing. It is a process with high power requirements which is often noisy and dusty. The design of machine
most commonly found in the feed.) manufacturing industry is the hammer mill and the operation of such
machines is illustrated in Figure 2. Inside the grinding chamber, hammers, which may be fixed rigidly to the
central shaft, or more often swinging on steel pins, rotate at high speed. The impact of the raw material on the
hammers and the continual high-velocity impact of particle on particle results in material breakdown until it is
small enough in size to pass through a perforated screen. It is obvious that the smaller the screen size the
more work will be required to reduce the particles to the desired size and the larger the grinder motor required.
Raw materials also have different grinding properties somewhat related to their bulk density and flow
characteristics. In general those of high bulk density grind more easily than fluffy, fibrous low-bulk density
materials. Grinders are most efficient when they are running at maximum capacity for a given raw material and
screen size.
Because of difficulties experienced in feeding certain raw materials (for example, brans, cottonseed cake)
through a grinder, many feed manufacturers pre-blend ingredients before grinding in order that the more easily
ground materials will act as carriers or flow aids to those offering resistance to grinding.
The grinding operation can generate considerable quantities of heat and dust and temperatures of raw
materials may increase by at least 10-20C. For these reasons the process may be a fire- or even an
explosion risk particularly if the grinder is not protected against the entry of metal, stones, glass and other
objects which can cause sparking. For safety reasons large grinders are often sited in separate brick-built
stores on the outside walls of feed mills. If ground material is to be stored in bins or sacks before further
processing it is essential that the heat generated during grinding be dissipated. Cooling normally occurs as air
is drawn into the grinding chamber, and during the pneumatic conveying of ground material from the grinding
screen to its point of discharge, which may be through a cyclone into a bin or mixer. Many small grinders have
suction fans fitted to the grinder shaft which bring about cooling and conveying of ground material in one
operation. Other grinders discharge directly into conveyors and the air drawn in during grinding is released
through filter bags. Grinders may operate in a horizontal or vertical direction according to design.
If ground material is conveyed pneumatically, the air and material are separated in a cyclone (see Figure 2).
This simple device, which is similar to an inverted cone, causes air to swirl around its walls depositing the
ground material at the base of the cone while the air exits at the top of the cyclone through a filter. Cyclones are
normally only 95% efficient at separating ground particles and air, and a cloth or other type of filter is necessary
as a dust barrier.
It should also be noted that the desired fineness of grind will be influenced by the livestock to which the feed
must be fed, or by other processes following grinding. Raw materials for poultry should be more finely ground
than for cattle or pigs and raw materials to be pelleted are usually more finely ground than the equivalent feed
as meal.
Figure 2 - Action of hammer grinder

Effect of moisture content of raw materials
The moisture content of raw materials to be ground in a hammer mill should not normally exceed 13-14%.
High-moisture feeds are plastic or malleable in character with few planes of impact weakness and may clog a
conventional hammer mill designed for handling dry ingredients. Hammer mills and other designs of grinders
may be obtained for handling moist or wet commodities, but these would not normally be used in a
conventional feed mill.
Use of pre-crusher
General purpose hammer mills for small-scale feed mills are not designed to crush large chunks of raw
materials to fine particles in a single pass operation. Large, lumpy, hard materials such as dried cassava roots
and expeller oil cakes should be pre-crushed in a cake breaker to a particle size suitable for the dimensions of
the hammer mill intake throat. It is important therefore that when requesting information on grinding machinery
from suppliers, full details of raw materials be provided. It is advisable to provide samples of the largest,
hardest and most fibrous materials likely to be encountered.
Mixing of dry ingredients and addition of liquids[edit]

It is the job of the mixer to produce a homogenous blend of all the raw materials desired in a formulation, such
that at each feeding period each animal receives a balanced mixture of nutrients. The smaller and younger the
animals to be fed, the greater is the need for good mixing. Not only are their requirements more demanding,
but the daily nutrient intakes of those eating small amounts of feed will be subject to much greater variation as
a result of poor mixing. Mixing often improves feed palatability if one or more of the raw materials is unpalatable
to livestock.
Shovels
Limited quantities of animal feed can be very adequately mixed (assuming the raw materials have been ground
appropriately) on a concrete pad with a shovel, in a manner similar to the dry mixing of cement and sand. Raw
materials should be layered one above each other and then mixed and turned to form an adjacent heap. An
efficient shovelling and mixing of the heap at least three times should produce an acceptable product with the
even distribution of small quantities of vitamins and minerals. Such a mix should be similar to a mixture
obtained from a vertical mixer described later. The evenness of colour of the mixture will often give a fair
indication as to the homogeneity of the mixed feed.
Concrete mixers
Small concrete mixers with electric or petrol engine drives are mobile lowcost machines suitable for the
manufacture of mixtures of dry ingredients or mixtures of wet feeds, for example for pigs. Pre-ground raw
materials should be mixed for a minimum of five minutes to achieve a satisfactory blend. For larger-scale feed
mixing however it is advisable and probably cheaper to use one of the conventional feed mixers described
below.
Conventional feed mixers
Two designs of mixers are most commonly found in the feed industry: the vertical (or fountain) mixer and the
horizontal (or U-trough) mixer. A third less common type is the conveyor mixer. Each type is described in more
detail below.
Vertical mixers
The vertical mixer is a slow action, long-dwell time mixer which relies upon the continuous tumbling and
intermingling of raw materials as they are discharged in a fountain-type action from a vertically running screw of
approximately 8-10" diameter as illustrated in Figure 3. Raw materials may enter the mixer either at the top,
from a cyclone or auger feed from the grinder, or at the base of the screw at a sack tipping point. After mixing
for a pre-determined time, normally 10-15 minutes (although this time may be shorter in some mixes), the
mixture is discharged into a bag or conveyed by auger or bucket elevator to a storage bin or pelleter.
Since many raw materials are dusty it is often desirable to include materials such as molasses, oils and fats in
the formulations to reduce dustiness as well as to provide a source of nutrients. Vertical mixers, because of
their slow-running action, are generally less effective in distributing liquids throughout the mixture, and liquids
tend to form beadlets or balls coated with fine particle material, rather than produce a surface coating on the
solid material. For coarse cattle rations where large quantities of feeds are consumed per animal the need for a
completely homogenous distribution of liquid is less critical than for poultry feeds or feeds to be pelleted, where
it is desirable that liquids be well mixed with minimal lumping.
Vertical mixers have a general tendency to encourage particle size segregation, especially if too long mixing
times are used. They are tall units which may not readily fit into buildings with low roofs or ceilings. However,
they can be easily loaded manually at floor level, and are relatively low capital-cost machines widely used in
feed manufacture where liquid addition is not required, or for blending raw materials prior to grinding.
Horizontal mixers
As the name suggests, horizontal mixers operate with a horizontally turning mixing shaft. The shaft may carry
paddles or agitators of various designs which come in very close proximity to the wall of a U-shaped trough.
Raw materials are lifted, folded and abraded against each other resulting in a relatively short mixing time,
typically of the order of 3-6 minutes, though it may vary depending on the nature of the mix. The mixer is
suitable for blending up to 8% liquids into a dry mix and therefore offers greater versatility if a wide range of
rations are to be offered from one feed mill unit. It is preferable that fats and molasses be warmed before
addition to the raw materials in the mixer and they should be added as the last ingredients. Because the
horizontal mixer is a faster mixing machine than a vertical mixer, two or perhaps three mixes can be achieved
in the same time as one mix in a vertical mixer. A half-tonne capacity horizontal mixer for example could
possibly replace a 1-tonne vertical mixer since two halftonne mixes could be made in a horizontal machine
including loading and unloading in the same time as one tonne in a vertical mixer. A horizontal mixer is more
sophisticated in terms of its engineering construction and thus more expensive to purchase than a vertical
mixer of equivalent capacity.
Conveyor mixers
Conveyor mixers are also available, particularly for farm use, and consist of a trapezoid metal box in which
mixing is effected by slats extending almost the full width of the machine and which are carried on a pair of
endless chains. Like the vertical mixer this machine is limited in its ability to blend liquids thoroughly into the
mixture.
Figure 3 - Mixers
Pelleting of mixed feed[edit]

The use of pelleted feed is often popular with farmers because it is convenient to handle and reduces dustiness
(for example, in cassava-based feeds), but pelleting can have other advantages. It prevents segregation of raw
materials during handling and selection by animals, especially poultry, during feeding. This may be particularly
useful where less palatable raw materials are included in the formulation. Pellets also reduce feed losses
during feeding, and may help to maintain, or increase, feed intake under certain conditions. The heat generated
during pelleting can inactivate some pathogenic bacteria which may be present in raw materials. Finally, in
some circumstances, pelleting can assist in preventing adulteration of feed by unscrupulous traders. However,
pelleting increases the cost of feeds because the capital cost of pelleters is relatively high compared to grinders
or mixers, the energy requirement is high, and additional care and skill is necessary for their maintenance and
operation. Therefore the decision on whether to pellet has to be made in the light of individual circumstances.
Pelleting involves the compression of a mixed feed through holes in a hardened steel ring or plate (a die) by
means of hardened steel rollers. The die forms the feed into pencil-like extrusions which are cut by knives into
pellets of desired length on leaving the die. The principle of operation of a ring die is given in Figure 4. In a ring
die pelleter, the rollers or the die may be driven but in a plate die pelleter the rollers only are driven. The die
and rollers of a ring die pelleter may operate in a horizontal or vertical plane according to machine design.
Pelleters with horizontally running dies are most commonly found in farm-scale feed mills. The pelleting
process is very energy intensive, demanding up to 50% of the total power required for feed manufacture. The
diameter of feed pellets is governed by the diameter of the holes in the die ring but the smaller the die holes the
greater effort is required to force meal into these holes, hence the greater the power demand, that is, the
smaller the pellet, the greater the cost of manufacture.
Figure 4 - Operation of a pelleter die head

Pelleters may also be divided into two further groups according to the pre-treatment of mixed feed prior to
compression or extrusion in the die head. Pelleters may be considered as cold pelleters or conditioner
pelleters.
Cold pelleters
In cold pelleting, mixed feed is fed directly from a bin or auger into the die head at ambient (normal
atmospheric) temperatures. Some water may be added, preferably in the mixer if the meal is too dry to bring it
to approximately 15-16% moisture, but there is no heat treatment of the mixed meal before it enters the die.
The frictional forces generated during pellet extrusion cause the temperature of the pelleted feed to increase
from ambient to up to 60-70C. Pellets must be cooled to ambient temperatures before storage by spreading
thinly over a large area of floor, or preferably cooled in a bin fitted with a cooling fan. During cooling the
moisture content is reduced to approximately 12% by evaporation in order to reduce the risk of sweating and
mould growth.
Cold pelleters for farm-scale use have outputs of up to 750 kg per hour of poultry pellets, or 1 tonne of dairy
pellets per hour, depending upon ration formulation, particle size and moisture content of the meal and pellet
diameter.
Conditioner pelleters
The term 'cold pelleting' is something of a misnomer since a considerable amount of heat is generated during
the pelleting operation, but it serves to distinguish the process from conditioner pelleting which is the usual
process in industrial pelleters. During conditioner pelleting, the mixed meal is directly pre-heated with dry steam
(i.e. steam which is in vapour form and does not contain suspended droplets of condensed steam) in a small
high-speed mixer called a conditioner or in a slow turning mixer called a kettle or ripener.
The steam preheats or conditions the meal to the preferred temperature and moisture content for pelleting
according to the formulation of the mixture, for example, 65C and 15% moisture. During pelleting the
temperature of the meal rises by approximately 10C, hence the final temperature of pellets from a
conditioner pelleter is similar to that of pellets from a cold pelleter. Coolers for these machines may be of
vertical or horizontal design. Cold air is drawn through a moving mass of pellets either as they fall through the
vertical machine, or as they pass along an open mesh belt through a horizontal cooler.
In terms of energy requirements for a given output, the energy required for manufacturing half a tonne per hour
of pellets in a cold pelleter is approximately equivalent to the sum of energy required to manufacture the same
quantity of pellets in a conditioner pelleter plus the energy required to produce the steam for the conditioner.
Practical experience shows that for a given pelleter motor size, the output of the pellets will be approximately
doubled if meal is pre-conditioned prior to pelleting, or, conversely a cold pelleter of say 25 horse-power will
produce only half the output of a conditioner pelleter of 25 horse-power if the energy required to raise the
steam is not taken into account.
Generally, the quality of pellets (that is, resistance to break-down after pelleting and during handling) of a given
mixture from a conditioner pelleter is marginally better than that from a cold pelleter, but the conditioner pelleter
requires a boiler and associated water treatment plant to treat the feed water for the boiler.
Pellet quality
Pellets should have a desired degree of hardness, and should also show high resistance to abrasion during
handling and transport. Pellet quality depends largely on the amount and nature of starch and protein in the raw
materials. Their binding effect is modified by a number of other factors including the moisture content, fibre
content, oil content, and fineness of grinding of the raw materials. Various types of dies are available for dealing
with different mixes. Instruments can be obtained for testing pellet hardness and resistance to abrasion.
Pellet binders
Some mixtures of raw materials do not bind well together when pelleted and require the addition of special
binding agents. Molasses is often added at 2-5% to aid binding, but other binders include bentonite clays and
lignosulphonates, and are added at the suppliers' recommended dosage levels, usually about 1-2%.
Augers, bucket elevators and conveyors[edit]

Augers and bucket elevators are used to move raw materials or meals from one feed mill operation to another.
Augers are steel tubes containing a continuous screw which conveys meals along its length as it is driven by a
motor. Various designs and diameters of augers are available, and care should be taken in their selection since
augers designed for conveying materials of high bulk density may not readily convey low-bulk density
materials. Augers may be used in a horizontal or inclined position, but are not suitable for the vertical
movement of materials. This job is best undertaken by a bucket elevator.
The bucket elevator consists of a tall metal or wooden box in which runs an endless chain fitted with buckets.
Buckets are filled at the base of the elevator and discharged at the top. Bucket elevators have a gentle lifting
and tipping action and are therefore suitable for lifting pellets to a cooler, whereas an auger may well damage
and break the pellets.
For the horizontal movement of large quantities of feed materials conveyors may be used. Again many designs
are employed, but their action is similar to that of the bucket elevator, with the exception that the buckets are
replaced by slats, chains or baffles to drag material from one process operation to another.
Bagging[edit]
Compound feeds, whether in meal or pellet form, are usually distributed in sacks in developing countries,
although for on-farm use or for distribution to a large livestock unit distribution could be in bins or trucks. Bags
may be filled directly from mixers or from holding bins and may be weighed on a scale balance or through an
automatic pre-set weigher and bagging unit set to weigh, for example, 25 kg of meal per bag. Bags may be of
jute, cotton or paper and can be hand- or machine-stitched or tied with a string or metal tie. Stitching machines
do not stand up to abuse and require a constant supply of appropriate needles and thread and are therefore
more applicable to the larger feed mill models in this bulletin. Polythene bags are not normally recommended
for storing animal feeds because of the risk of sweating and mould growth. If old bags are re-used, care should
be taken that they have not been used previously for the storage of fertilizers, pesticides, or other chemicals.
Other requirements[edit]
For the successful manufacture of compound feeds several other requirements must be fulfilled: these are
discussed below.
Buildings
The buildings to house the manufacturing plant will depend to a large extent on the particular circumstances of
the mill, but generally they must be capable of being kept clean, and provision should be made for keeping the
dust level as low as possible since it can affect the operation of machinery. Excessive dust is also a fire and
explosion hazard. In some environments, machinery can be housed in a light structure and where the climate is
suitable it may even stand in the open. However, consideration may need to be given to local building
regulations and to special precautions necessary for occasional adverse climatic conditions, for example,
hurricanes. A concrete floor which can be swept is usual, but should be laid down to the manufacturer's plans
as some pits and floor fixings may be required. Where flooding may occur, as during a monsoon period, the
floor must be above the high level water mark. The machinery usually has its own supports which are supplied
by the manufacturer or can be made locally to his specifications.
Power
The power to drive feed milling equipment is generally obtained from electrically driven motors. Some smallscale processes can be undertaken by hand or by using direct driven machinery. Grinders, mixers and pelleters
can be obtained which are driven by petrol or diesel engines directly, or from a tractor power take off (PTO).
However, for most situations, electric motors provide the simplest and most convenient method of driving
machinery. If grid ('mains electricity') is not available, a diesel-generating set can be used instead so that
electricity is produced independently of the grid.
Electricity supply
For small processes with a connected motor load of a few kilowatts (that is, the sum of the motor powers),
operation from a single-phase electrical supply might be possible. However, it is normal for
industrial/commercial premises and sometimes for agricultural premises to have a 3-phase supply. It is
essential to determine the likely electrical load for the machinery and then to determine what type and quantity
of electricity can be made available. If grid electricity is used, contact should be made with the local electricity
supply authority. If a generating set is to be used, then it is the responsibility of the user to specify the
requirements.
The characteristics of the supply which need to be known include:
the number of phases (1 or 3) and whether a neutral is available for the 3-phase supply,
the nominal voltage and frequency,
the variations in voltage and frequency,
the maximum demand in kVA,
the maximum starting load permissible,
the arrangements for earthing,
the arrangements for short-circuit protection.
Electrical equipment
Electrical equipment is designed to operate within prescribed limits of voltage and frequency, and under
specific conditions. Any abnormal conditions such as high ambient temperatures, high humidities, high altitude,
or dusty or wet environments, can affect the satisfactory operation of motors and equipment. These factors
should be stated to suppliers of machinery as well as information on the electrical supply. If, for instance,
equipment is to be used outside, it should be specified for tropical outdoor use.
All electrically operated process machinery should have a method of starting and stopping. This is usually
achieved by operating pushbuttons on a starter. Some method of isolating each machine from the supply
should also be incorporated to allow maintenance and cleaning to be undertaken safely. The starter and
isolators (motor control gear) can be supplied with the machinery or obtained separately. Direct-on-line starting
of small motors is normally used. However, with larger motors (typically 4 kW or 7.5 kW depending upon the
local electricity supply undertaking) some method of reducing the current surge on starting is usually necessary
such as star-delta starting. In fact many undertakings insist upon this so as to minimize voltage dips in the
supply.
Depending upon the size of the installation, a main fuseboard and isolator (distribution gear) may be necessary
as well as additional facilities such as lighting, socket outlets and ventilation. Sometimes it is necessary to
provide power factor correction equipment.
Water
Water is required for steam raising if the feed mill has a steam conditioner, or may be added to the mixer to
raise the moisture content of the meal to a level suitable for pelleting. Water supplies should be of potable
quality and uncontaminated with effluent or sediment.
Cleanliness
Although feed mills are not factories for the production of human food, they should be kept as clean as
practicable. Dusty conditions are unpleasant to work in and are ideal for the development of contaminating
insects, micro-organisms and scavenging vermin which may introduce disease to animals and reduce animal
productivity. Gross infestation by moth larvae in particular may well bring about blockage of augers, elevators
or outlets to bins which are used only periodically due to excessive build-up of insect webbing.
Dusty conditions also demonstrate that quantities of expensive raw materials are being lost and wasted.
Cleaning does not involve complicated procedures and can be fitted easily into the normal working schedule.
Care should particularly be taken when cleaning process plant which has been used for the inclusion of
veterinary compounds such as drugs since crosscontamination from one ration into another for a different
species of animal may prove fatal.
Routine maintenance
All mechanical equipment is subject to wear and tear and regular maintenance should form part of the working
schedule. Machinery manufacturers will give advice on maintenance programmes and a supply of spare parts
should be kept in stock, a list of typical spare parts being given below.
Grinder screen and hammers Auger and elevator bearings Belts and bushes Spare motors Pelleter dies and
rollers Dust filter socks Elbows and bends in ducting which may be prone to wear Miscellaneous nuts and bolts
Electrical spares, etc.
It is important therefore to budget for spare parts when purchasing new equipment or when determining annual
inputs for an established feed mill.
Importance of power factor[edit]
Most AC electrical machines draw from the supply apparent power in terms of kilovolt amperes (kVA) which is
in excess of the useful power, measured in kilowatts (kW), required by the machine. The ratio of these
quantities is known as the power factor of the load, and is dependent upon the type of machine in use.
Assuming a constant supply voltage, this implies that more current is drawn from the electricity authority than is
actually required.
Power factor = (true power) / (apparent power) = kW / kVA
A large proportion of the electrical machinery used in industry has an inherently low power factor, which means
that the supply authorities have to generate much more current than is theoretically required. This excess
current flows through generators, cables, and transformers in the same manner as the useful current. The
motive power requirements are generally greater than the resistive loads such as lighting and heating. If steps
are not taken to improve the power factor of the load, all the equipment from the power station to the factory
sub-circuit wiring has to be larger than necessary. This results in increased capital expenditure and higher
transmission and distribution losses throughout the whole supply network.
To overcome this problem, and at the same time to ensure that generators and cables are not overloaded with
wattless current (as this excess current is termed), the supply authorities often offer reduced terms to
consumers whose power factor is high, or impose penalties on those with low power factor. Most supply
authorities insist that a power factor of at least 0.90 is achieved. Improving the power factor helps to reduce the
overall consumption of electricity.
Tariffs
The charges for electricity are based on various tariffs which vary both in structure and cost from place to
place. Various standing charges and a connection charge are also made. Typically, the electricity charged for
will be based on:
(i) a standing charge based on the total kilowattage of the installed motors or on the kilowattage of the largest
installed motor;
(ii) on the number of units consumed;
(iii) an extra charge for units when an agreed maximum level is exceeded - referred to as the maximum
demand charge.
The standing charge (i) is applied irrespective of the amount of electricity consumed or of how often the
equipment is used. The charge (ii) is an accumulative charge to take account of the quantity of electricity used
in a particular period. Not all units are necessarily charged at the same rate. A meter is provided by the supply
undertaking for this. The maximum demand charge (iii) is a penalty charge which is applied if the amount of
electricity used in a specified period (usually 0.5 hours) exceeds a level which has been previously agreed
between the supplier and user. It is intended to level out demand by discouraging users from consuming a
large amount of electricity for just a short time. A separate meter is provided for this; it measures kVA rather
than kW. Some authorities offer reduced tariffs depending upon how and when the electricity is used.
Generators
If grid electricity is not available or not suitable in some way, an alternative method of obtaining electricity is to
use a generating set. Small sets of a few kVA capacity can be petrol driven, but normally they are diesel-engine
driven. The size of the set required depends upon the output required and upon the starting characteristics of
the various items of equipment. The supplier of the feed mill machinery can usually advise on the size most
suitable for the particular installation. When the installation consists of a number of small motors, then a set
slightly larger than the sum total of the motor kilowattages is usually adequate, but expressed in kVA based on
a power factor normally of 0.8. If however just one of the motors is large in comparison with the total load, a
larger generating set is necessary so as to prevent undue voltage dips occurring when that particular motor is
started, as such dips will effect equipment already running. For satisfactory operation, the diesel engine will
require regular maintenance.
Quality control[edit]
Quality control is essential at all stages in the production of compound feed if the maximum and most efficient
returns are to be obtained by the feed compounder and livestock producer. In some countries the control of
feed quality is regulated by government legislation, while in others there is no such provision. In either case,
omission of any serious attempt at quality control is false economy in the longer term.
The achievement of good quality control is frequently difficult in developing countries. Locally available raw
materials may be highly variable in composition, and for this reason routine analysis should be carried out on
as many batches as possible. However, the equipment for setting up a basic quality control laboratory costs
around 30,000 at 1986 prices and is therefore a relatively expensive operation, especially for small-scale
feed milling operations, and suitably trained staff may not be available. In some cases it may be possible for a
limited number of samples to be analysed by government laboratories or by independent chemical analysts.
Not all larger laboratories will have facilities for some of the more specialized analyses for example, for amino
acids, which may be required.
Fairly simple and inexpensive equipment is available for the rapid determination of moisture content and should
be available in all feed manufacturing operations. If further facilities can be established, the next most basic
analyses are crude protein and fibre. The microscopical examination of raw materials can provide a valuable
check on their identity and the presence, or otherwise, of adulterants. The cost of the relevant equipment
(microscope, etc.) is fairly modest, but some experience is necessary before individual materials can be
identified with confidence. Training courses in the technique are available.
The quality of raw materials can be affected by growing, harvesting, and post-harvest handling and processing,
but at the feed mill the quality control function usually begins with the receipt of raw materials. They should
arrive in good condition in sacks, or other containers, which should not have been used for the storage of
fertilizer, pesticides, or other chemicals. They should not be lumpy or mouldy or heavily infested with insects.
The moisture content should not be excessive and should be closely monitored if the raw materials are stored.
The control of moisture content is one of the most important aspects of quality control.
Moisture content
Moisture content of stored produce is closely related to ambient relative humidity. Oil-free materials such as
grains have higher moisture contents than those containing oil, in equilibrium with the same ambient relative
humidity. However, differences in moisture content/relative humidity relationships are small for oil-free feed
materials, and it is possible to generalize for these to some extent with moisture contents which are critical for
different types of biological activity. Moisture content in equilibrium with a given relative humidity varies with
temperature, and for a 10C rise decreases by 0.6-0.7% for the oil-free material.
The moisture content in equilibrium with a given relative humidity is also affected by the so-called 'hysteresis'
effect. Due to this, feed materials absorbing water to achieve a given equilibrium relative humidity, have lower
moisture contents than those drying out to the same equilibrium relative humidity. Biological activity both within
the materials and of pests is greatly affected by moisture content. Insect pests will not develop on feedingstuffs
at relative humidities outside the range 30-90%, while bacteria will only develop at relative humidities of over
90%. Fungi generally grow only at relative humidities of over 70%, while seed germination normally requires
relative humidities of more than 95%. Expressing these in terms of approximate moisture contents of oil-free
material stored at temperatures of 20-30C, the following can be anticipated:
(i) up to 8% moisture (30% relative humidity): no significant biological activity;
(ii) 8-14% (30-70% relative humidity): insect infestation possible; mites can infest at relative humidities of over
60%;
(iii) 14-20% moisture (70-90% relative humidity): insect infestation and mould growth can occur;
(iv) 20-25% moisture (90-95% relative humidity): mould and bacterial growth possible;
(v) above 25% moisture (more than 95% relative humidity): bacterial growth and seed germination possible.
In practical terms, this means that moisture content should be kept as low as possible, but should not be
allowed to exceed that which would be in equilibrium with relative humidities of 70% or more. Allowing a safety
margin to take into account fluctuations in equilibrium equivalents, a maximum moisture content of around 1
3% for oil-free material would seem to be appropriate. Lastly it should be mentioned that moisture content can
influence the degree to which certain chemical changes, which are not biologically induced, may occur.
However, its greatest effect is on the biological changes already mentioned.
Mycotoxins[edit]
Almost all vegetable compound feed materials of tropical origin are liable to contamination by the aflatoxins, a
group of highly toxic mould metabolites, produced by certain strains of the moulds Aspergillus flavus and
Aspergillus parasiticus. The aflatoxins can be formed during the pre-and post-harvest stages of raw material
production provided that a suitable environment for mould growth exists. The conditions required for mould
growth are usually satisfied in tropical countries. Different commodities vary in their ability to support fungal
colonization due to differences in the chemical composition of each commodity. Samples of oilseed cakes from
groundnut, cottonseed, palm kernel and copra, together with cereals like maize have been found to contain
high levels of aflatoxin, whereas the majority of samples of soya and fish meal which have been analysed for
aflatoxin have been found to be free of the toxin.
The acute toxicity of the aflatoxins and their ability to induce liver cancer in animals varies according to the sex
and age of the animal and a number of other factors. Young animals are more susceptible to aflatoxin
intoxication than older animals, and males usually require a smaller dose of the toxin than females to produce a
similar effect.
The aflatoxins can affect the cellular-immune system of animals and so decrease their ability to resist viral and
bacterial infections. In addition, the aflatoxins have been reported to reduce the absorption of a number of
essential feed constituents and drugs from the gut and this can affect animal health and productivity.
Consequently, the amount of aflatoxin in the diet of animals should be restricted.
Many countries have introduced legislation to limit the amount of aflatoxin in animal feeds and some are
restricting the levels of aflatoxin in compound feed ingredients imported from other countries. In the European
Community (EC) the maximum level of aflatoxin permitted in a complete feed is 50 mg/kg and this is reduced to
10 mg/kg when the feed is to be given to dairy cattle because of the risk of aflatoxin derivatives reaching milk
for human consumption. A variety of analytical and big-assay methods have been developed for determining
the levels of aflatoxin in animal feeds. However, the efficiency of these methods is frequently compromised by
the collection of an inadequate sample, or by the unsatisfactory preparation of the sample prior to analysis.
Details of the methodology suitable for determining the levels of aflatoxin in animal feeds can be found in a
manual prepared by ODNRI and used by trainees attending the aflatoxin training course held annually at
ODNRI.
Other tests[edit]
In addition to the above factors, there are a number of other considerations to be borne in mind with specific
types of materials. It is important to ensure that processed materials, particularly those of animal origin such as
fish, meat and bone meal, do not contain any pathogenic bacteria which could cause diseases in animals to
which they are fed. The most common pathogenic organism encountered is salmonella, and it is important that
consignments, particularly from new suppliers of processed materials, be tested for this organism.
Protein concentrates which have undergone processing, for example, oilseed cake and meal and animal byproduct meals which are to be included in feeds for monogastric animals, should be tested to ensure that the
quality of the protein has not been reduced during processing. The most important form of damage recognized
is the rendering of the amino acid Iysine unavailable for nutritional processes by excessive heating during
processing. It is therefore important to test materials of this type in common usage for available Iysine content
from time to time and to check any new materials which are offered.
Materials such as cottonseed cake which are prepared from seeds known to contain toxic substances
(gossypol in the case of cottonseed), should be tested to ensure that they are of acceptably low toxicity for
inclusion in feeds for the class of animals for which they are intended. For example, cottonseed cake should
not be included in feeds for pigs or poultry unless the gossypol content is very low, whereas gossypol tolerance
of mature ruminants is very much greater. Some toxicity problems may be overcome with chemical treatment,
and ferrous sulphate has often been recommended for cottonseed. An indication of the various types of toxic
factors which can be encountered are given in Appendix 3, Table XV.
Finished feeds[edit]
If the raw materials and processing conditions are of the correct standard, then the product should also be of
the correct standard. However, variations and errors can arise in the weighing or accidental omission of an
individual raw material. The omission of a small quantity of vitamin supplement may have a marked adverse
effect on the health and growth rate of animals receiving the feed. For this reason, considerable care must be
exercised in ensuring that the specified amounts of all raw materials are weighed out for each batch, and an
appropriate system for checking this should be devised. It is important that representative samples of batches
be taken for check analyses to monitor the composition of the finished feeds. If results show deviations from
the required composition, the reasons for this must be sought and rectified. In some countries there may be
statutory requirements for the composition of feed offered for sale.
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Introduction

Evaluate mixer design (type, geometry, power, time, speed, efficiency).

Define material changes (particle size reduction).

Define standards for comparison of mixers.

Describe the mixing process.

Correlate quality of mix with respect to time.

Mixer Design Options

Horizontal Auger Mixer

Chain and Paddle Mixer

Figure 1. Mixer Design Types

Vertical Screw Mixer

Incorporating Long-Stemmed Forage

Total Mixed Ration Volume

Figure 2. TMR Volume per Cow (As Fed)

100 cows x 6.5 c.f./cow/day = 650 c.f./day

650 c.f./day / 2 times feeding = 325 c.f. mixing capacity

Figure 3. TMR Mixer Costs

What size mixer is needed?

What kinds of feeds are in my ration?

Can this mixer blend my ration?

Will the mixer provide a uniform mix (with my ration)?

How many hours per day will the mixer be used?

Is there local service?

Is the mixer well built?

Is the mixer available on a trailer or truck mount?

What kind of scale is available?

What other options are needed?

2.2 Attrition Mills

2.3 Roller Mills

3.1 Horizontal Mixers

3.1 Horizontal Mixers

3.2 Vertical Mixers

3.3 Other Types of Mixers

3.4 Liquid Mixers

3.5 Mixing Operation and Evaluation

4.2 Influence of Feed Composition

4.3 Cooling and Drying

4.5 Screening or Grading

4.6 Use of Hard Pellets

5% gelatinized corn solids (dry)

Control formula - unground

5% gelatinized corn solids - wet

Control formula ground through 2 mm screen

5% rice mill dust, 75 microns diameter

5% rice mill dust sifted through 180 microns

10% rice mill dust sifted through 180 microns

20% rice mill dust sifted through 180 microns

4.7 Hazards of Feeding Hard Pellets

4.8 Pellet Hardness and Stability

Table 2 Physical Measurements Of Pellet Stability of a Standard Catfish Feed

Water stability % retained 10

Broken by Stokes pellet

Unground, no steam, thin die

Unground, no steam, thick die

Unground, added steam, thin die

Unground, added steam, thick die

Ground, no steam, thin die

Ground, no steam thick die

Ground, added steam, thin die

Ground, added steam, thick die

Ground plus 20% gelatinized potato starch

4.9 Floating Pellets

how to measure using vernier caliper pdf in inches,mm,decximals - Google Search

Jenie Hernandez Ebreo