1

Atoms and
sub-atomic particles
UNIT 2

particles
UNIT 2

Sub-units

This unit is split into 3 topics:

Atoms

and sub atomic particles

Electrons

and mass

Atoms and
sub-atomic particles
UNIT 2.1 - PARTICLES

Subject
content
Learning outcomes from syllabus

Expected learning gains

A deep understanding of the structure of the

atom

Mastery when calculating the number of particles

in an atom and their position

Understanding of how electric fields effect subatomic particles

Identification and analysis of isotopes

Fluency in reproducing key definitions related to

the mass of different particles

Starter 1

Last Year

Prior knowledge starter 2

On the following slide is a group of
words related to atoms
Create sentences which state one
fact about atoms that you already
know
Each sentence MUST use at least
one word

Starter 3 recall questions

10

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Structure of the atom

UNIT 2.1 ATOMS AND SUB-ATOMIC PARTICLES

The Atom

12

There are more atoms in a single grain

of sand, than there are grains of sand on
all the beaches in all the world

Sub-atomic particles

13

They each have different relative charges and relative

masses measured in amu
Atomic Mass Units

Relative here means the values are considered in

proportion to each other
Particle

Symbol

Relative
mass

Relative
charge

Proton

+1

Neutron

Electron

e-

0.00055

-1

location, location, location

14
The protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus whilst the electrons
are found around the outside

This creates a nucleus which is positive due to the protons and a

negatively charged area around the outside created by the electrons

Defend or disagree

Questions:
What does an
atom consist
of?

15

State the relative mass,

charge and position16in
the atom of:
An electron
A proton
A neutron

Where is most of the

mass in the atom
located?

Fluent recall
Particle

17
Relative
mass

Relative
charge

Proton

Neutron

Electron

In rough copy and fill in this table as quickly as you

can!

Attraction

Electrostatics tells us that like charges repel and

opposite/unlike charges attract

Considering that the nucleus

of the atom is positive and
the electrons are negative
what is strange about the
structure of the atom?

18

Homework task

19

Research the work of the scientists who help to form the model
of the atom we use today

From Dalton to Rutherford describe any changes and

modifications to the theory which were made

Try to use language from the following key concept:

20

Electric fields
UNIT 2 ATOMS AND SUB-ATOMIC PARTICLES

Electric fields

21

We can learn about the size and charge of the

sub-atomic particles by firing them through an
electric field at constant speed

neutron

key concept

22

Atoms and forces

Matter is built from atoms interacting and
bonding through electrostatic forces.
The structure of matter affects its physical
and chemical properties, and
influences how substances react
chemically.

Electric fields

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neutron

Video

Two clips of cathode ray tubes demonstrating this

field in real life

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qp6tNaUvfNI

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Examination question
Paper 2, Nov 2006, Q1(a)
practice

25

Paper 1, June 2007, Q4

In pairs

Close your notes

Number yourselves 1 & 2

READY?

Number 2: Using a piece of paper and a pencil

explain how protons, electrons and neutrons are
effected when they pass through an electric field

Number 1: Try to challenge the explanation ask

questions and do not let Number 2 provide you
with anything less than a crystal clear
explanation!

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Mass spectrometer

27

The Mass Spectrometer is a very important analytical machine

used by chemists

Some of the ideas about deflecting particles can be seen in

the operation of this machine

28

Number of sub-atomic
particles
ATOMS AND SUB-ATOMIC PARTICLES

Atomic information

29

The particles in an atom can be calculated by using the

atomic number and the mass number

How many protons and

neutrons do the following
atoms have?

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isotopes

An isotope is an atom of the same element with

the same number of protons and electrons BUT a
different number of neutrons

You could imagine it as a different flavour of the

same element!

Isotopes

Example: Bromine

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ions

Is an atom loses or gains electrons an ion will be

formed

Here sodium loses an electron and fluorine gains

an electron

A positive and a negative ion are formed

ions

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34

This information wont change if we discuss an ion because the

mass number and proton number do not involve electrons

(not enough that we have to consider it at this level!)

Copy and complete

Atom
/Ion

35

Proton Nucleon Number of Number of Number of

Number Number
protons
neutrons
electrons
3

12

12

12

20

20

18

39

19

12

18
6

52

24

24

56

26

23

14

answers
Atom
/Ion

36

Proton Nucleon Number of Number of Number of

Number Number
protons
neutrons
electrons

Li+

Be

2
4

Mg

12

24

12

12

12

C (isotope)

13

Ca2+

40

20

39

19

20
20

18

K+

20
19

C (isotope)

12

Cr

24

52

24

28

24

Fe3+

26

56

26

30

23

C (isotope)

14

18

Fill in the gaps

Create a half-filled table similar to the one you

have just completed

Use different elements (you may use the internet

to find some different isotopes)

Swap your worksheet with another member of

the class

TIPS:

Make sure you can do the questions yourself

youll have to mark it!

Make sure you are careful when you include ions

and get the number of electrons correct!

Examination question
practice

37

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Isotopes and ions

39

Atoms and elements

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Electrons
UNIT 2

Expected learning gains

Understanding of electronic orbitals

Proficiency in calculating the electronic

configuration of atoms and ions

42

Retrieval

43

What did you learn

Last lesson

Last week

Electronic Configuration
Write out the AS electronic configuration for the 1st
20 elements
Eg.
Hydrogen 1s1
Helium
etc

1s2

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Electronic configuration
UNIT 2 ELECTRONS AND MASS

Quantum numbers

At GCSE we used an idea of shells

to identify different locations or
levels for the electrons

We now add detail to these ideas

The principal quantum numbers 1, 2,

3, 4 etc. are the shells we
discussed at GCSE

The 2,8,18 pattern is still followed in a

more detailed fashion

Electrons fill these quantum

numbers in order with only minor
exceptions

46

Orbitals

47

Each energy level (shell) is further split into orbitals

Each orbital can hold two electrons

The first shell contains:

The second shell contains:

1x s-orbital

1x s-orbital and 3x p-orbitals

The third shell contains:

1x s-orbital, 3x p-orbitals and 5x d-orbitals

S-Orbitals

48

Dont be misled by diagrams you have seen before

Electrons dont orbit the nucleus like the Earth orbits

the Sun

An S-Orbital is a sphere where you are 95% certain to

find the electron you are looking for
1s, 2s

1s

The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle roughly states you

cant know where an electron is AND its speed and
direction its one or the other!

P-Orbitals

49

P-orbitals are dumbbell shaped, or two pears stuck

end to end!

They appear in groups of 3 one on each 3d axis

px, py, pz

Orbitals

50

The electrons from different orbitals can occupy the

same space and move very quickly to create areas
of electron density

ANIMATION

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Electrons fill up these orbitals in order from lowest

to highest energy

Quanta

Why dont the electrons ever go in between the

energy levels? Why are there discrete levels?

Energy can only be absorbed or released in single

quantums, small packets of energy

These quanta do not occur in part and so all

energy interactions in the universe have discrete
values

52

Animation

Electronic configuration

Electronic configuration can be represented in many

types of diagram

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54

A-level Electronic
Configuration
What atoms have the
following electronic
configurations?

1.

55

2.

A.

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

B.

1s2 2s2 2p1

C.

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2

D.

1s2

C.

E.

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5

D.

A.
B.

E.

Filling the orbitals

We must obey Hunds Rules, Paulis Exclusion Principle

and the Aufbau Process when displaying electronic
configurations in diagrams

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The Aufbau process

The electrons fill up the lowest empty energy levels

Diagrams

Simple diagrams can be sketched to help work

out the configurations

58

Diagrams

59

Using boxes or lines draw a diagram to show the

electronic configuration of:

Be

Ar

Ca

60
Electronic configuration of ions

In terms of sub-atomic
particles, what do Na+
and Ne have in
common?

Would they have the

same configuration?

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Summary

How are the ideas of electronic configuration at

GCSE and AS level similar?

What causes us to discuss electron density rather

than individual electrons in an orbital?

What do you still not understand about electronic

configuration?

70

Potassium

71

What is periodicity?

72

The term periodicity describes a repeating pattern in

properties of elements across periods of the periodic table.
The Russian chemist Dmitry
Mendeleev is credited with being the
creator of the first version of the
periodic table. He observed that when
the elements are arranged in order of
atomic mass, there are recurring
patterns in certain properties.
The modern periodic table can be used
to analyse trends in properties such as
atomic radius across periods and
down groups.

What is atomic radius?

The atomic radius of an element is difficult to precisely define
because of the uncertainty over the size of the electron cloud.
Several definitions are used.
One definition is half the shortest internuclear distance found
in the structure of the element.
For non-metallic elements, the
covalent radius is often used
as the atomic radius. This is half
the internuclear distance
between two identical atoms in
a single covalent bond.

covalent
radius

More on atomic radius

For non-bonded adjacent atoms (e.g. in a covalent crystal of
a non-metallic element), the van der Waals radius is used as
a value for atomic radius. This is half the shortest internuclear
distance between two similar non-bonded atoms.
van der
Waals radius

For metallic elements, the metallic radius is often used as

the atomic radius. This is half the shortest internuclear
distance between two adjacent atoms in a metallic bond.

Trends in atomic radius in

period 3

75

Trends in atomic radius in period 3

Element

Atomic
radius (nm)

Na

0.190

Mg

0.145

Al

0.118

Si

0.111

0.098

0.088

Cl

0.079

Ar

0.071

The atomic radius of the elements

across period 3 decreases.
This might seem counterintuitive, because as the
numbers of sub-atomic particles
increase, the radius might be
expected to also increase.
However, more than 99% of the
atom is empty space the
nucleus and electrons themselves
occupy a tiny volume of the atom.

Increase in proton number

The number of protons in the nucleus of the atoms

increases across period 3.
proton
number

Element

11Na 12Mg 13Al

14Si

15P

16S

17Cl

18Ar

This increase in the number of protons increases the

nuclear charge of the atoms. The nucleus has stronger
attraction for the electrons, pulling them in closer and so
the atomic radius decreases across the period.
increased
nuclear charge
pulls electrons
closer

What is shielding?

Explaining atomic radius in period 3

Proton
Element number

Atomic
radius
(nm)

Na

11

0.190

Mg

12

0.145

Al

13

0.118

Si

14

0.111

15

0.098

16

0.088

Cl

17

0.079

Ar

18

0.071

Proton number increases

across period 3, but
shielding remains
approximately constant.
This causes an increase
in effective nuclear
charge, leading to a
greater attraction
between the nucleus and
the outermost electrons.
This pulls these electrons
closer to the nucleus and
results in a smaller radius.

Atomic radius in period 3

Atomic radius: true or false?

What is first ionization energy?

The first ionization energy of an element is the energy
required to remove one electron from a gaseous atom.
M(g) M+(g) + eThe first ionization energy is therefore a measure of the
strength of the attraction between the outermost electrons
and the nucleus.
The first ionization energies of the elements in periods 2
or 3 can give information about their electronic structure.

Plot of the first ionization energies

There is a general
increase in the first
ionization energies
across period 3.

ionization energy
(kJ mol-1)

General trend in first ionization

energy
1600
1400
1200
1000
800

Across period 3, the

600
proton number
400
increases but the
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
amount of shielding
element
does not change significantly.
The effective nuclear charge therefore increases.
The greater attraction between the nucleus and the
outermost electrons means that more energy is required to
remove an electron.

Trend in first ionization energy:

exceptions

ionization
energy (kJ mol-1)

There are two exceptions to the general trend in first

ionization energy: both aluminium and sulfur have lower
ionization energies than might be expected.
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
Na Mg Al

lower
ionization
energies
than
expected
Si

Cl

Ar

element

First ionization energy of Al vs.

Mg

86

The first ionization energy of aluminium is less than that of

magnesium, even though aluminium has a higher nuclear
charge.
The electron removed when aluminium is ionized is in a 3p
sub-level, which is higher in energy than the 3s electron
removed when magnesium is ionized. Removing an electron
from a higher energy orbital requires less energy.
magnesium

aluminium

First ionization energy of S vs.

P The first ionization energy of sulfur is less than that of
phosphorus, even though sulfur has a higher nuclear charge.
The highest energy electron in both phosphorus and sulfur
is in the 3p sub-level. However, in sulfur this electron is
paired, while in phosphorus each 3p orbital is singly
occupied. Mutual repulsion between paired electrons
means less energy is required to remove one of them.

phosphorus

sulfur

Ionization energy in period 3

Ionization energy in period 3

- Patterns in the Periodic Table

Multiple Choice Questions

1.

WHICH ENTRY IN THE TABLE SHOWS THE TRENDS IN THE ELECTRO

NEGATIVITY VALUES OF THE ELEMENTS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE?
ACROSS A PERIOD

A.
B.
C.
D.

DOWN A GROUP

DECREASE

DECREASE

DECREASE

INCREASE

INCREASE
INCREASE

Answer

DECREASE
INCREASE

C.

Patterns in the Periodic Table

Multiple Choice Questions

2.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE ATOMIC SIZE OF SODIUM AND

CHLORINE IS MAINLY DUE TO THE DIFFERENCE IN THE

A. NUMBER OF ELECTRONS
B. NUMBER OF PROTONS
C. NUMBER OF NEUTRONS
D. MASS OF EACH ATOM

Answer

B.

Patterns in the Periodic Table

Multiple Choice Questions

3.

WHICH ELEMENT WOULD REQUIRE THE MOST ENERGY TO

CONVERT ONE MOLE OF GASEOUS ATOMS INTO GASEOUS IONS
CARRYING ONE POSITIVE CHARGE?
A. LITHIUM
B. SODIUM
C. POTASSIUM
D. CAESIUM

Answer

A.

Patterns in the Periodic Table

Multiple Choice Questions

4.

WHICH EQUATION REPRESENTS THE FIRST IONISATION ENERGY

OF FLUORINE?
E-

F-(G)

A. F(G)

B. F(G)

F+(G)

C. F2(G)
F-(G)
D. F+(G)

E-

E-

E-

F(G)

B.

Answer

Patterns in the Periodic Table

Multiple Choice Questions

5.

WHICH STATEMENT CONCERNING THE SIZE OF ATOMS AND IONS

IS CORRECT?
A. CL- IS LESS THAN THAT OF CL
B. H- IS GREATER THAN THAT OF H+
C. NA+ IS GREATER THAN THAT OF NA
D. FE3+ IS GREATER THAN THAT OF FE2+

Answer

B.

Patterns in the Periodic Table

Multiple Choice Questions

6.

WHICH EQUATION REPRESENTS THE FIRST IONISATION ENERGY

OF A DIATOMIC ELEMENT X2?

A. X2(S)
X+(G)
B. X2(G)
C. X(G)
D. X(S)

X-(G)

X+(G)
X+(G)

C.

Answer

Patterns in the Periodic Table

Multiple Choice Questions

7. SODIUM HAS A LARGER ATOMIC SIZE THAN LITHIUM

BECAUSE SODIUM HAS

A. A HIGHER FIRST IONISATION ENERGY

B. A HIGHER MASS NUMBER
C. MORE OCCUPIED ELECTRON ENERGY LEVELS
D. A LARGER NUCLEAR CHARGE

Answer

C.

Patterns in the Periodic Table

Multiple Choice Questions

8. WHICH ELEMENT REQUIRES THE MOST ENERGY TO CONVERT ONE

MOLE OF GASEOUS ATOMS INTO ONE MOLE OF GASEOUS IONS
WITH A 2+ CHARGE?
(YOU MAY WISH TO REFER TO THE DATA BOOKLET)
A. SCANDIUM
B. TITANIUM
C. VANADIUM
D. CHROMIUM

D.

Answer

- Patterns in the Periodic Table

Multiple Choice Questions

9. WHICH PROPERTY OF THE GROUP 1 ELEMENTS

COULD BE REPRESENTED BY THE GRAPH?
A. ATOMIC SIZE
B. 1ST IONISATION ENERGY
C. MELTING POINT
D. ELECTRO NEGATIVITY

Li

Answer

Na

Rb

A.

Patterns in the Periodic Table

Multiple Choice Questions

10. IN WHICH MOLECULE WILL THE CHLORINE ATOM

CARRY A PARTIAL POSITIVE CHARGE (
+)?
(YOU MAY WISH TO REFER TO THE DATA BOOKLET)
A. Cl-I
B. Cl-F
C. Cl-BR
D. CL-H

Answer

B.