C O N T E N T S

1. Introd uction

1 27

ElectronicsAtomic structureStructure of
elementsThe electronEnergy of an electron
Valence electronsFree electronsVoltage
sourceConstant voltage sourceConstant
current sourceConversion of voltage source into
current sourceMaximum power transfer
theoremThevenins theoremProcedure for
finding thevenin equivalent circuitNorton's
theoremProcedure for finding norton equivalent
circuit Chassis and ground.

2. Electron Em ission

28 37

Electron emissionTypes of electron emissionThermionic emissionThermionic emitterCommonly

used thermionic emittersCathode construction
Field emissionSecondary emissionPhoto electric
emission.

3 . Ga s- Filled Tub es

38 47

Gas-filled tubesConduction in a gasCold-cathode gas diodeCharacteristics of cold-cathode

diodeApplications of glow tubesHot-cathode
gas diodeThyratronApplications of Thyratron.
(vii)

4. Atom ic Structure

48 54

Bohrs atomic modelEnergy levelsEnergy bands

lmportant energy bands in solids Classification of
solids and energy bands Silicon.

5 . Sem icond uctor Physics

55 75

SemiconductorBonds in semiconductorsCrystals
Commonly used semiconductors Energy band
description of semiconductorsEffect of temperature on semiconductorsHole currentIntrinsic
semiconductorExtrinsic semiconductor n -type
semiconductorp-type semiconductorCharge on ntype and p -type semiconductors Majority and
minority carriers pn -junctionProperties of pn -junctionApplying D.C.
voltage acrosspn junctionVolt-ampere characteristics of pn-junction
Important termsLimitations in the operating conditions of pn-junction.

6 . Sem icond uctor Diod e

76 124

Semiconductor diodeCrystal diode as a rectifier

Resistance of crystal DiodeEquivalent circuit of
crystal diodeCrystal diode equivalent circuits
lmportant termsCrystal diode rectifiersHalf-wave
rectifierOutput frequency of Half-wave rectifier
Efficiency of half-wave rectifierFull-wave rectifier
Centre-tap full-wave rectifierFull-wave bridge
rectifierOutput frequency of full-wave rectifierEfficiency of full-wave
rectifierFaults in centre-tap full-wave rectifierNature of rectifier output
Ripple factorComparison of rectifiersFilter circuitsTypes of filter circuits
Voltage multipliersHalf-wave voltage doublerVoltage stabilisationZener
diodeEquivalent circuit of zener diodeZener diode as voltage stabiliser
Solving zener diode circuitsCrystal diodes versus vacuum-diodes.

7.

Sp ecia l-Purp ose Diod es

125 140

Zener diodeLight-emitting diode (LED)LED voltage and

currentAdvantages of LEDMulticolour LEDsApplications of LEDsPhoto-diodePhoto-diode operation
Characteristics of photo-diodeApplications of PhotodiodesOptoisolatorTunnel diodeTunnel diode oscillatorVaractor diodeApplication of varactor diode
Shockley diode.
(viii)

8. Tra nsistors

141 191

TransistorNaming the transistor terminalsSome

facts about the transistorTransistor actionTransistor
symbolsTransistor as an amplifierTransistor
connectionsCommon
base
connection
Characteristics of common base connection
Common emitter connectionMeasurement of
leakage currentCharacteristics of common
emitter
connectionCommon
collector
connectionComparison of transistor connections
Commonly used transistor connectionTransistor as an amplifier in CE
arrangementTransistor load line analysisOperating pointPractical way
of drawing CE circuitOutput from transistor amplifierPerformance of
transistor amplifierCut off and saturation pointsPower rating of transistor
Determination of transistor configurationSemiconductor devices
numbering systemTransistor lead identificationTransistor testing
Applications of common base amplifiersTransistors versus vacuum tubes.

9. Tra nsistor Bia sing

192 239

Faithful amplificationTransistor biasinglnherent

variations of transistor parametersStabilisationEssentials of a transistor biasing circuitStability factorMethods of transistor biasingBase resistor
methodEmitter bias circuitCircuit analysis of emitter biasBiasing with collector feedback resistorVoltage divider bias methodStability factor for potential divider biasDesign of transistor biasing circuitsMid-point biasingWhich value of to be
usedMiscellaneous bias circuits Silicon versus germaniumInstantaneous
current and voltage waveformsSummary of transistor bias circuits.

10 . Sing le Sta g e Tra nsistor Am p lifiers

240 279

Single stage transistor amplifierHow transistor amplifies?

Graphical demonstration of transistor amplifierPractical
circuit of transistor amplifierPhase reversalInput/output
phase relationshipsD.C. and A.C. equivalent circuits
Load line analysisVoltage gainA.C. emitter resistance
Formula for A.C. emitter resistanceVoltage gain of CE
amplifierVoltage gain of unloaded CE amplifierVoltage
gain of CE amplifier without CEInput impedance of CE
amplifierVoltage gain stabilitySwamped AmplifierClassification of
amplifiersAmplifier equivalent circuitEquivalent circuit with signal source
Gain and transistor configurations.
(ix)

11. M ultista g e Tra nsistor Am p lifiers

280 305

Multistage transistor amplifierRole of capacitors in

transistor amplifierslmportant termsProperties of db
gainR.C. coupled transistor amplifierTransformer
coupled amplifiersDirect-coupled amplifierComparison of different types of couplingDifference between transistor and tube amplifiers.

12. Tra nsistor Aud io Pow er Am p lifiers

306 334

Transistor audio power amplifierSmall-signal and large-signal amplifiers

Output power of amplifierDifference between voltage and power
amplifiersPer formance quantities of power
amplifiersClassification of power amplifiers
Expression for collector efficiencyMaximum
collector efficiency for series-fed class A amplifier
Maximum collector efficiency of transformer coupled
class A power amplifierImportant points about class
A power amplifierThermal runawayHeat sink
Mathematical analysisStages of a practical power
amplifierDriver stageOutput stagePush pull amplifierMaximum
efficiency for class B operationComplementary-symmetry amplifier.

13. Am p lifiers With Neg a tive Feed b a ck

335 363

FeedbackPrinciples of negative voltage

feedback in amplifiersGain of negative
voltage feedback amplifierAdvantages of
negative voltage feedbackFeedback
circuitPrinciples of negative current
feedbackCurrent gain with negative current
feedbackEffects of negative current
feedbackEmitter followerD.C. analysis of emitter followerVoltage gain
of emitter followerInput impedance of emitter followerOutput
impedance of emitter follower Applications of emitter followerDarlington
amplifier.

14 . Sinusoid a l Oscilla tors

364 388

Sinusoidal oscillatorTypes of sinusoidal oscillations

Oscillatory circuitUndamped oscillations from tank
circuitPositive feedback amplifierOscillator
Essentials of transistor oscillatorExplanation of
barkhausen criterionDifferent types of transistor
oscillatorsTuned collector oscillatorColpitt's
(x)

oscillatorsHartley oscillatorPrinciples of phase shift oscillatorsPhase shift

oscillatorWien bridge oscillator Limitations of LC and RC oscillators
Piezoelectric crystalsWorking of quartz crystalEquivalent circuit of crystal
Frequency response of crystalTransistor crystal oscillator.

15. Tra nsistor Tuned Am p lifiers

389 410

Tuned amplifiersDistinction between tuned

amplifiers and other amplifiersAnalysis of paralled
tuned circuitCharacteristics of parallel resonant
circuitAdvantages of tuned amplifiersWhy not
tuned amplifiers for low frequency amplification?
Frequency response of tuned amplifierRelation
between Q and bandwidthSingle tuned
amplifierAnalysis of tuned amplifierA.C.
equivalent circuit of tuned amplifierDouble tuned
amplifierBandwidth of double-tuned amplifierPractical application of
double tuned amplifierTuned class C amplifierClass C operationD.C.
and A.C. loadsMaximum A.C. output power.

16. M od ula tion And Dem od ula tion

411 441

Radio broadcasting, transmission and receptionModulationTypes of

modulationAmplitude modulationModulation factorAnalysis of amplitude modulated waveSideband frequencies in AM
waveTransistor AM modulatorPower in AM waveLimitations of amplitude modulationFrequency
modulationTheory of frequency modulationComparison of FM and AM DemodulationEssentials in
demodulationA.M. diode detectorA.M. radio receiversTypes of A.M. radio receiversStages of
superhetrodyne radio receiverAdvantages of
superhetrodyne circuitFM receiverDifference between FM and AM receivers.

17. Reg ula ted D.C. Pow er Sup p ly

442 467

Ordinary D.C. power supplylmportant terms

Regulated power supplyTypes of voltage regulatorsZener diode voltage regulatorCondition
for proper operation of zener regulatorTransistor series voltage regulatorSeries feedback
voltage regulatorShort-circuit protectionTransistor shunt voltage regulatorShunt feedback
voltage regulatorGlow-tube voltage regulatorSeries triode voltage regu(xi)

latorSeries double triode voltage regulatorIC voltage regulatorsFixed

positive voltage regulatorsFixed negative voltage regulatorsAdjustable
voltage regulatorsDual-tracking voltage regulators.

18. Solid -Sta te Sw itching Circuits

468 505

Switching circuitSwitchMechanical switchElectromechanical switch or

relayElectronic switchesAdvantages of electronic switchesImportant
termsSwitching transistorsSwitching action of a transistorMultivibratorsTypes of multivibratorsTransistor
astable multivibratorTransistor monostable
multivibratorTransistor bistable multivibratorDifferentiating circuitIntegrating circuitImportant applications of diodesClipping circuitsApplications of clippersClamping circuitsBasic idea of a clamperPositive clamperNegative clamper.

19 . Field Ef
fect Tra nsistors
Effect

506 553

Types of field effect transistorsJunction field effect transistor (JFET)Principle and working of JFETSchematic symbol of JFETImportance of JFET
Difference between JFET and bipolar transistorJFET
as an amplifierOutput characteristics of JFETSalient features of of JFETImportant termsExpression
for drain currentAdvantages of JFETParameters
of JFETRelation among JFET parametersVariation
of transconductance (gm or gfs) of JFETJFET biasingJFET biasing by bias batterySelf-bias for JFET
JFET with voltage-divider biasJFET connections
Practical JFET amplifierD.C. and A.C. equivalent circuits of JFETD.C. load
line analysisVoltage gain of JFET amplifier (with source resistance RS)JFET
applicationsMetal oxide semiconductor FET (MOSFET)Types of MOSFET
Symbols for D-MOSFETCircuit operation of D-MOSFETD-MOSFET transfer
characteristicTransconductance and input impedance of D-MOSFETDMOSFET biasingCommon source D-MOSFET amplifierD-MOSFETs versus
JFETsE-MOSFETE-MOSFET biasing circuitsD-MOSFETs versus E-MOSFETs.

2 0 . Silicon Controlled Rectifiers

554 576

Silicon Controlled rectifier (SCR)Working of SCR

Equivalent circuit of SCR-V-I characteristics of SCRSCR
in normal operationSCR as a switchSCR switching
SCR half-wave rectifierSCR full-wave rectifierSinglephase SCR inverter circuitApplications of SCR-Lightactivated SCR.
(xii)

2 1. Pow er Electronics

577 600

Power electronicsThe triacTriac constructionSCR

equivalent circuit of triacTriac operationTriac phase
control circuitApplications of triacThe Diac
Applications of diacUnijunction transistor (UJT)
Equivalent circuit of a UJTCharacteristics of UJT
Advantages of UJTApplications of UJT.

2 2 . Electronic Instrum ents

601 626

Electronic instrumentsMultimeterApplications of multimeterSensitivity of

multimeterMerits and demerits of multimeterMeter protectionElectronic
voltmetersVacuum tube voltmeter (VTVM)
Applications of VTVMMerits and demerits of VTVM
Transistor voltmeter circuitBridge rectifier voltmeter
Cathode ray oscilloscopeCathode ray tube
Deflection sensitivity of CRTApplying signal across
vertical platesDisplay of signal waveform on CRO
Signal pattern on screenVarious controls of CRO
Applications of CRO.

2 3 . Integ ra ted Circuits

627 641

Integrated circuitsAdvantages and disadvantages

of integrated circuitsInside an IC packageIC
classificationsMaking monolithic ICFabrication of
components on monolithic ICSimple monolithic ICs
IC packingsIC symbolsScale of integrationSome
circuits using ICs.

2 4 . Hyb rid Pa ra m eters

642 661

Hybrid
parametersDetermination
of
h
parameters h parameter equivalent circuit
Performance of a linear circuit in h parameters
The h parameters of a transistorNomenclature for
transistor h parametersTransistor circuit
performance in h parametersApproximate hybrid
formulas for transistor amplifierExperimental
determination of transistor h parametersLimitations
of h parameters.
(xiii)

2 5 . Op era tiona l Am p lifiers

662 728

Operational amplifierDifferential amplifier

(DA)Basic circuit of differential amplifier
Operation of differential amplifierCommonmode and differential-mode signalsDoubleended input operation of DAVoltage gains of
DACommon-mode rejection ratio (CMRR)
D.C. analysis of differential amplifier (DA)
Overview of differential amplifierParameters
of DA (or OP-amp) due to mismatch of transistorsInput bias currentA.C.
analysis of differential amplifierCommon-mode voltage gainOperational
amplifier (OP-amp)Schematic symbol of operational amplifierOutput
voltage from OP-ampA.C. analysis of OP-ampBandwidth of an OP-amp
Slew rateFrequency response of an OP-amp OP-amp with negative
feedbackApplications of OP-ampInverting amplifierInput and output
impedance of inverting amplifierNoninverting amplifierVoltage follower
Multistage OP-amp circuitsEffect of negative feedback on OP-amp
impedancesFaults in feedback circuitsSummary of OP-amp
configurationsSumming amplifiersApplications of summing amplifiers
OP-amp integrators and differentiatorsOP-amp integratorCritical
frequency of integratorsOP-amp differentiatorComparators
Comparator circuits.

26. Dig ita l Electronics

729 773

Analog and digital signalsDigital circuitBinary

number systemPlace valueDecimal to binary
conversionBinary to decimal conversionOctal
number systemHexadecimal number system
Binary-coded decimal code (BCD code)Logic
gatesThree basic logic gatesOR gateAND
gateNOT gate or inverterCombination of basic
logic gatesNAND gate as a universal gateExclusive OR gateEncoders and decodersAdvantages and
disadvantages of digital electronicsBoolean algebraBoolean theorems
DeMorgans theoremsOperator precedenceCombinational logic
circuitsBoolean expressions for combinational logic circuitsAND and OR
operations in Boolean expressionTruth table from logic circuitDeveloping
logic circuit from its Boolean expressionSum-of-products form
Simplification of Boolean expressionsBinary additionElectronic adders
Flip-flops.

Ind ex

775 778
(xiv)