ACTA CARSOLOGICA

29/2

16

213-230

LJUBLJANA 2000

COBISS: 1.08

ARE COLLAPSE DOLINES FORMED ONLY BY COLLAPSE?

ALI SO UDORNICE ZGOLJ POSLEDICA UDORA?
FRANCE [U[TER[I^ 1

University of Ljubljana, Department of Geology, A{ke~eva 12, SI-1000 LJUBLJANA, SLOVENIA,

E-mail: france.sustersic@ntfgeo.uni-lj.si

Prejeto / received: 7. 9. 2000

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Acta carsologica, 29/2 (2000)

UDK: 551.435.84(497.4)

Izvle~ek
France [u{ter{i~: Ali so udornice zgolj posledica udora?

Razprava te~e o udornicah, enem na videz najbolje definiranih povr{inskih kra{kih pojavov. Kljub temu je v
literaturi zaslediti zelo razli~ne poglede, nekateri vidiki njihove geomorfogeneze pa so bili doslej prezrti.
Predvsem gre za za nadalnji razvoj globeli v kra{ke povr{ju, potem ko so prepadne stene udornice e uni~ene,
pobo~ja oblikuje samo {e epasto preperevanje, denudacija pa se je zajedla e globoko pod dno nekdanjega
jamskega rova. Take globeli imenuje avtor fantomske udornice. V nadalnjem obravnava pet v Sloveniji najbolj obi~ajnih tipov udornic in jih klasificira s pomo~jo terminologije splo{ne teorije sistemov. Zaklju~uje, da
sam udor stropa ostaja bistven del celotnega procesa, je pa volumsko lahko zelo podrejen.
Klju~ne besede: udornice, vrta~e, kra{ko povr{je, kra{ke globeli, spelogeneza, Slovenija.

UDC: 551.435.84(497.4)

Abstract
France [u{ter{i~: Are collapse dolines formed only by collapse?

The paper concerns collapse dolines, which appear to be one of the best-defined surface karst phenomena.
Despite this appearance, one may find quite different views in the literature, and some the aspects of their
morphogenesis have been overlooked completely. Among these aspects the most obvious is the question of
the ongoing development of the closed depression. After the perpendicular walls have disappeared, the slopes
are reshaped only by pocket weathering, and denudation penetrates deep below the former level of the preexisting cave floor. Dolines at this stage of development have been termed phantom collapse dolines. Five of
the most common collapse doline types found in Slovenia are considered in terms of general systems theory,
leading to a conclusion that cave roof collapse remains the crucial event in a collapse dolines development.
However, the collapse event itself may be relatively subdued in terms of the volume of free fallen mass
involved.
Key words: collapse dolines, dolines, karst surface, karst depressions, speleogenesis, Slovenia.

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France [u{ter{i~: Are collapse dolines formed only by collapse?

INTRODUCTION
A number of definitions within the karst sciences have tended to be rather volatile, but that of
the collapse doline has remained essentially unchanged for more than a century, because the
underlying concept appears to be unequivocal. This paper sets out to show that, though the central
idea remains unchanged, field study has revealed a variety of evidence that makes the general
understanding of the expression collapse doline much wider. Though application of a rudimentary general systems theory terminology has proved to be the most effective tool in attempting to
find a pattern among various possible outcomes, the paper does not set out to rearrange wider
knowledge about collapse dolines in these terms.
Nineteenth century recognition of medium-scale, more or less circular, closed depressions within the karst surface, which were immediately referred to as dolines, inevitably raised questions
about their origin. Initially, sudden collapse of cave roofs appeared to be the most likely explanation. However, it soon became apparent that two fundamental types of doline exist, i.e. solution
dolines, formed gradually by locally enhanced dissolution of the surface bedrock layers, and col-

Fig. 1: Collapse doline sections, as presented by various authors.

Sl. 1: Preseki udornic, kot jih navajajo razli~ni avtorji.

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Acta carsologica, 29/2 (2000)

lapse dolines, bound somehow to some sort of catastrophic collapse event. The idea that the bulk of
the collapsed material must be removed by the main underground drain, rather than by tributary
vadose water and seepage, appears to be ubiquitous, though (in the present authors opinion) was
never expressed explicitly.
During the Twentieth Century, monograph descriptions of collapse doline sections soon began
to become very much alike. (Fig. 1). The principle of ergodicity was accepted tacitly, without
question. Thus, the Davisian concepts of young and old landscapes and landforms appeared to
be self-evident. Without any profound discussion about their development, dolines with a greater
share of bare rock slopes (walls) were accepted as younger, whereas those without walls (if ever
recognised as being collapse dolines) were accepted as older. The differences between collapse
and solution dolines are obvious when dealing with young examples. However, the idea of equifinality appears always to be present among older examples, with both types showing a similar
appearance, as echoed in Mc H. Connely and J.M. Horns (1972) paper.
A short glance at Cvijis (18951, 42) drawing of the section of the ^rna jama entrance chamber (Postojnska jama system) (Fig. 2) makes it clear what H. Cramer (1944) meant to say when
providing the definition (o.c., p.327): A collapse doline can contain open connections to the underlying karst-cave and is as such recognisable without problems. The local collapse of the ceiling
of a cave is a result of lack of stability in the caves arch. This is triggered by continuous erosion of
the karst-surface... (= exposure of karst-cavities due to denudation of the land surface.2 Considering the idea of ergodicity (taken as self evident), dolines without open entrances to caves, even
without perpendicular walls, were considered to be older stages of the same phenomenon.

Fig. 2. Cvijis (1895, 42) drawing of the ^rna jama. Note that the underground rivers elevation
value is wrong, and should read 508 rather than 408.
Sl. 2. Cvijieva (1895, 42) risba ^rne jame. Vi{ina vodne gladine je napa~na, priblino prav bi bilo
508 in ne 408.
1
2

Non-Slav readers are referred to the (1893) German edition of essentially the same book.
Die Einsturzdoline kann offene Verbindungen zur unterlagernden Karsthhle aufweisen und ist sodann
als solche ohne weiteres erkennbar... Der lokale Deckenversturz einer Hhle erfolgt bei mangenlender
Standfestigkeit der Hhlenfirste. Er wird ausgelst duch fortschreitende Abtragung der Karstoberflche ...
(= Freilegung der Karsthohlrumen durch Oberflchen-denudation).

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France [u{ter{i~: Are collapse dolines formed only by collapse?

ABOUT THE PROCESSES

Intuitively, the basic processes3 involved appear to be:
Table 1.
RM
removal of fallen material
FC
formation of large caverns
VOID (NEGATIVE MASS) FORMATION
AP approaching of the surface / to the surface
CL
collapse / opening to the surface
DOLINE CREATION
SR
slope retreat
SHAPE (TRANS) FORMATION
DD gradual disintegration due to denudation

Detailed discussion of the processes can be found within the cited literature. In the following
consideration only those aspects that presently appear to be less well known, or are crucial to the
understanding of other sections, are discussed.
Logically, opening to the surface is the step that transforms an underground phenomenon into
a surface one. The act itself, however, is not essentially karstic. Rather, in the sense of F. [u{ter{i~
(1996), it is cosmopolitan, as it does not form part of any specific geomorphic system. In other
words, it is a reaction of an unstable rock mass, regardless of why and how its mechanical equilibrium has been disturbed.
The idea that the original cave chamber must be very large at the time of the formation of the
doline appears to be a corollary. Nevertheless, many field measurements (F. [u{ter{i~, 1973, 1974,
1997) reveal that even very large collapse dolines may evolve from cave chambers of relatively
modest ground plan. This can be a consequence of:
existence of vertically oriented negative masses (voids) within the parent rock,
or/and
prolonged mass removal, continuing far into the time of the dolines shape transformation.
The former explanation has been demonstrated in the case of Vranja jama (884, north of Planinsko polje). The collapse appeared at the exact location of a phreatic jump between two inception
horizons (F. [u{ter{i~, 1994). Similar events are at least strongly suggested at several locations
within the nearby system of Najdena jama (259). It appears that they are likely to exist where
relatively small cave channels are cut by a sudden breakdown.
The latter explanation is obvious in cases where extremely large dolines lie at the intersection
of regional underground water flow and local strike-slip faults (F. [u{ter{i~, 1997). In both cases,

3
4

Generally, but not inevitably, starting at the top of the Table 1.

Numbering is in accordance with the central cave register of Slovenia, maintained by the Speleological
Association of Slovenia and the Karst Research Institute ZRC SAZU.

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Acta carsologica, 29/2 (2000)

tectonic loosening of the parent rock has enhanced, if not governed, the collapse process.
Removal of mass by system drains has been mentioned as inevitable. However, it is not the
only influence upon doline volume and shape. In some cases, like Dolec in the Najdena jama
system, a permanent draught of cold air enters the cave from between collapsed boulders, regardless of the season. On the other hand, no significant blowing holes appear in the floor of the collapse doline about 90m higher, even in the coldest and snowiest winters. It is clear that the effects of
winter cooling of the collapse material can sustain the sucking of surface air into the cave throughout the year. Warm, water-saturated summer air is thus cooled down, yielding a quantity of condensation water. The base of the collapse is accessible only from one side, in one of the most
inaccessible parts of the cave, which is flooded for several months every year, so systematic logging of the meteorological conditions has not yet been done. However, estimates based on sporadic
observations and existing literature, suggest that the potential role of condensation water in corroding fallen material cannot be ignored (V.N., Dublyansky, & Y.V., Dublyansky, 2000).
*
Though generally not mentioned explicitly, the last step in the logical chain5 is the gradual
disintegration of the dolines slopes (and consequently the gradual loss of the dolines identity
within the surface) due to denudation. Recently, surface caving has revealed several evidently old
collapse dolines with unroofed caves within their slopes but a solid rock bowl in the floor. Evidently, their present appearance reflects the denudational decay of a normal collapse doline and
its surroundings.
Denudation of the surface around and within the doline is constantly active. Being relatively
slow, it may be neglected, at the time while mass removal by an underground drain and/or condensation water and parallel slope retreat are operative. Later, surface denudation becomes the only
agent that operates upon the doline, slowly equalising vertical differences and making the doline
shallower. After any scree material on them has been removed, the doline slopes are reshaped too.
Pocket weathering does not differ from that in areas outside the doline, and the doline slopes become more and more integrated into the neighbouring surface. Field observations at Vodi{ka dolina,
east of Ivanje Selo, show that the scree material in the centre decays faster than the surrounding
slopes, and for some time a characteristic central lowering is evident. Eventually the now-subdued
former collapse doline becomes just one among a variety of hollows on the land surface. Only
outcrops of cave sediments (i.e. related to intersected caverns) within the slopes testify to the origin
of the hollow. Such hollows are described as phantom collapse dolines.
Eventually, all negative masses (voids) of whatever origin within the denuded parent rock
mass would evolve into similar depressions. Thus, a proportion of karst surface hollows that cannot be explained directly, or which display no genetic relationship to observable processes or structures, are deduced to be phantoms of former underground/negative relief forms.

It has to be asked why, to the authors knowledge, this final stage has been completely ignored in the
literature.

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France [u{ter{i~: Are collapse dolines formed only by collapse?

SOME MOST FREQUENT OUTCOMES

A widely but tacitly accepted idea that, within a doline, the listed processes (see Table 1)
operate in a simple time succession (i.e. only one can operate at a time) appears to be obvious.
However, field evidence does not support this oversimplification. Instead, a number of combinations may occur, resulting in a variety of outcomes that may seem contradictory.
The processes may either follow one another in a strict succession or (at least some of them)
can operate simultaneously. Figures 3 and 4 and the following text, describe some of the more
frequently met examples, based on the evidence of field observations. The situations shown in the
upper parts of the figures represent the time when a particular process actually operates (bold
lines), whereas the sections at the bottom give an impression of the general aspect of the doline at
various significant stages.
However, timescale is inevitably arbitrary. Though field observations do not support the idea
of a sudden instantaneous collapse of the cave roof, one may speculate that, relatively speaking,
collapse takes hardly any time, compared to the time needed for a big cave chamber to develop.
Similarly, the time needed to transform a steep-walled depression into an inverted cone-shaped
doline is not negligible. Even this time is relatively short, however, compared to that needed for
denudation6 to annihilate the doline, i.e. to let down the surrounding surface below the level of the
rock floor of the pre-existing cavern.
Considering negative mass transport (non-denudational removal by the underground drain) of
breakdown material as the main process, collapse dolines may be either closed or open systems.
Nevertheless, it must be stressed that there is complete equifinality among collapse dolines (phantom dolines), though their volumes may differ significantly due to the state of the system.
The text relating to the figures does not set out to describe the full the development story, but
instead comments only upon the more interesting details.
Case C1: totally closed system, stable cave roof (Fig. 3, C1).
The expression totally closed system indicates that mass removal by the underground drain
ceases long before establishment of a stable roof in the big chamber. In this case gradual breakdown of the ceiling and consequent accumulation of fallen material on the floor, will initially
insulate the void from any neighbouring cave channels. The process should stop as soon as a stable
arch (A. Scheidegger, 1961) is achieved.
Some (perhaps exceptional) field examples demonstrate that this does not happen immediately. During this process, adjusting of the cavern to the geostatic stress field will gradually bring
about mechanical equilibration of the ceiling, i.e. formation of a parabolic arch (Ph. Renault, 1967)
and rounding of the ground plan of the cave, making it more or less circular, or at least elliptical
(F. [u{ter{i~, 1974).
To gain a basic impression, the reader is referred to work by J. Kortnik and F. [u{ter{i~
(2000 / this volume, p. 152, Fig. 1). The sub-circular ground plan of Brezno pri Medvedovi konti
(2330) testifies that it must have migrated a significant distance upwards. At present its ceiling
seems to have achieved a stable arch morphology. In this particular case some roof spalling due to
6

I. Gams (1964) suggested 65m/Ma for the Ljubljanica river catchment area.

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Acta carsologica, 29/2 (2000)

winter freezing is still active. However, it is induced from outside the cave and it may be assumed
that - as in cases where cavern roofs are covered by flowstone - it will not collapse until denudation
acting alone destroys it. On the basis of current denudation rates (I. Gams, o.c.), this will take some
102 Ka. See J. Kortnik and F. [u{ter{i~ (o.c.) for more detailed information about the process of
cavern roof decay.

Fig. 3: Collapse dolines explained in terms of closed system.

Sl. 3: Udornice interpretirane kot produkti zaprtega sistema.

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France [u{ter{i~: Are collapse dolines formed only by collapse?

Case C2: totally closed system, unstable cave roof (Fig. 3, C2).
In some cases it appears that a cave roof cannot achieve stable arch morphology. Though the
caverns ground plan may be at least isometric, the roof looks very uneven and free of flowstone
cover, and collapsed material on the floor looks fresh. The chamber appears still to be active, in the
sense that the process of collapse is still active. Such cave roofs are likely to continue to decay until
collapse transforms the cave into a doline. Because the bulk volume of broken rock is larger than
the volume of the solid source rock (F. [u{ter{i~. 1973), such a process brings about a reduction of
the cave volume7.
Cases C1 and C2 differ in the way that the arched cave roof arrives close to the surface - that is,
how the ceiling becomes too thin to support itself. In the second case, both cave roof block spalling
and denudational surface lowering operate. In the first case, only the latter operates and the bulk
process might be much slower. Though no direct measurements of the rate of roof spalling in caves
of this type exist, the process appears to act much more quickly than simple denudation, perhaps by
a factor of 10 or more.
An alternative history of cases C1 and C2 may follow from a phreatic jump situation (F. [u{ter{i~, 1996). In this case, the cave chamber will be little wider than neighbouring horizontal passages. Volume will be distributed vertically, and it would not be expected that the roof would be
unstable. After denudation has lowered the surface sufficiently, a relatively narrow but deep, vertical-walled, depression will appear, soon to transform into a more normal collapse doline of
smaller dimensions. It appears that the entrance shaft of the Gradi{nica cave (86 / M. Marussig,
F. Velkovrh, 1959) is of this type. Further development, however, will not differ significantly from
that just described, except that during the time of phantom doline development the unroofed
cave will appear only on one side of the doline at the same time.
Case C3: Hypothetical outcome: partly open system, closure at the time of collapse
(Fig. 3, C3).
P. Habi~ (1963) noticed that the floors of various collapse dolines in the area south of Ljubljanski vrh (20 km SW from Ljubljana) are grouped within relatively few absolute level-determined
groups, though their surface lips are at different elevations. He concluded that this is the consequence of two facts:
that the caves below were formed at clearly defined levels, and
that removal of fallen mass lasted until the roof eventually collapsed.
For many years the validity of the former idea was in doubt, because only fragments of phreatic
systems8 were known in the general neighbourhood. Now that several caves have been explored
fully the idea can be refuted. Reliable field evidence (M. Bren~i~, 1992; F. [u{ter{i~, 1994) confirms that caves at discrete levels neither exist nor existed in this area, and that there is no need to
7

If the ceiling is thick enough the chamber could eventually be filled completely (the cave space consumed)
due to relative mass increase of the fallen material (F. u{ter{i, 1974). In this latter case, however, the
process will stop before the collapse reaches the surface, and no doline will appear (F. u{ter{i, o.c., 30,
Fig. 1b).
However, this considers the absolute elevation only very approximately, i.e. in the same sense as S. Worthingtons (1991) tiers.

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postulate them. In contrast, the latter idea implies that all cave roofs are of approximately equal
thickness at the moment of collapse. Even if such coincidence seemed in any way reasonable, the
underlying supposition - that at the precise moment of collapse the debris would block the underground stream and halt mass removal - sounds highly unlikely. Additionally, Habi~ (o.c.) overlooked the fact that, if this were the situation, the dolines at higher levels would be older. In this
case, the best that can be said is that the field evidence is unconvincing.
Case O1: totally open system, shallow underground stream (Fig. 4, O1)9.
In the Rakov [kocjan (karst) valley, the cave system has developed relatively close to the
surface. Locally, the variations between massive reef limestone and bedded limestone make lithological conditions for cave development very heterogeneous. Consequently, relatively small cave
channels formed within the massive rock alternate with large cave chambers formed in bedded
rock.
Due to the proximity of the surface, the ceilings of the chambers will spall down progressively
until breaking through to the surface. Meanwhile, the flow of underground stream water below is

Fig. 4: Collapse dolines explained in terms of closed system.

Sl. 4: Udornice interpretirane kot produkti odprtega sistema.
9

Note that the last stages (phantom dolines) are omitted from this figure (cases O1 and O2).

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France [u{ter{i~: Are collapse dolines formed only by collapse?

strong enough to remove the collapse material simultaneously. Consequently, the slope retreat of
the newly formed dolines is unconstrained and they merge together. Eventually, a string of collapses will change into a canyon that will gradually be transformed into a karst valley. Denudation,
however, cannot lower the bottom of the depression below base level, and consequently, the valley
will evolve into a wide depression with gentle slopes, which might be compared to a small karst
polje.
It must be stressed that significant tectonic structures are unnecessary and relatively large cave
chambers can develop due only to the effects of lithological contrasts, later to be transformed into
collapse dolines. The underground stream10 retains its primary position because it can cope with
removal of the total amount of collapsed material.
Case O2: totally open system, deep underground stream (Fig. 4, O2)11.
The present volume of the Brezno pri Medvedovi konti chamber is 62.0 104 m3 (F. [u{ter{i~,
1973), which appears to be enormous for a cave. The doline that will evolve from it, however,
will not look spectacular, compared with larger examples described in this paper. It follows that if
the development history is as described, the mere existence of a collapse doline suggests the preexistence of a large cave chamber. The partial collapse of the relatively large chamber, and the
related small collapse doline in ^rna jama (Fig. 2) are a good example.
By reference to the example of the Rakovska kukava, F. [u{ter{i~ (1997) demonstrated that
very large collapse dolines may evolve from relatively small cave chambers. However, a much
more impressive example, is provided by La{ka kukava. This is nearly 100 m deep and its volume
surpasses 4 Mm3 (Table 2). There are two active foci of recent material removal in its floor
(F. [u{ter{i~, 1974).
A clue about the formational mechanism of this type of collapse doline is found not far away in
Riba jama (248). The whole of the accessible cave is a single, c. 40 m-deep, cavern with an amoeba-like vertical section. Evidently the cavern formed by the simple settling down of tectonic crush
within the broken zone of a local strike-slip fault. A similar situation is found in all of the kukave12,
which are all crossed by similar faults. The explanation is that underground water finds such zones
difficult to break through. Consequently, once a route was opened, flow along it would persist,
even if the passage was being repeatedly obstructed by periodically collapsing tectonic crush. Such
material being unstable, the process would continue until a Riba jama-like cave appeared at the
surface.
If the karst stream flow persisted long enough in the same position, the cave would eventually evolve into a doline, which would increase in volume until the stream flow ceased (start of
closed system conditions), or until it appeared on the surface. The time span required for the latter
outcome to be realised appears to be longer than the time needed to rearrange the cave system, and
field examples are rare.

10

However, the underground stream will soon change into a surface one.
Note that the scale is different in each example, and that in this particular case (O2) the volume of the
doline might be as much as 100 times larger than that in the previous one.
12
Singular kukava. A local name for very large, evidently collapse, dolines. The expression appears to be
derived from the Latin expression concavus = inflected inwards.
11

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It must be stressed that the volumes of the largest dolines (kukave) surpass those of the largest
cave chambers by a factor of about 20, and the development of cave chambers of approximately
similar volumes are mechanically impossible (F. [u{ter{i~, 1973).
Table 2: Volumes of collapse dolines (popularly named kukave) and volumes of the largest known
cave chambers in the area (F. [u{ter{i~ 13, 1973).
kukave
La{ka kukava
Smrkovca
Rakovska kukava
Dolga dolina
Gladovec
Ivanjska kukava
Cerkni{ka kukava

4.17
1.6
1.35
1.1
0.92
0.85
0.53

Mm3
Mm3
Mm3
Mm3
Mm3
Mm3
Mm3

Big chambers
Gradi{nica / Blatna dvorana14
Najdena jama / Putickova dv.
Najdena jama / Sul~eva dv.
Logar~ek / Blatna dvorana
Jama za Bukovim vrhom
Ma~kovca / Velika dvorana
Logar~ek / Podorna dvorana

37.5
7.2
5.0
4.2
3.9
2.4
1.2

104 m3
104 m3
104 m3
104 m3
104 m3
104 m3
104 m3

*
The cases examined above are not the only possibilities. Combining the duration of the main
processes and the possibilities of closed or open system conditions, other outcomes may be hypothesised. The options discussed here are those that appear to be supported by field observations or,
in other words, the ones that are needed to explain, and allow understanding of, the collapse dolines of south-central Slovenia.

CONCLUSIONS

The models presented demonstrate that a collapse doline is an underground-rooted surface

karst form. More rigorously, it may be considered as a non-karstic projection of a karst void
onto the karst surface.
Among the major types of mass movement (M. Summerfield, 169, Tab. 7.5) during collapse
doline development and transformation, cavity collapse (free fall), rock fall (from vertical faces), rock block slide, debris slide, rock slump and talus creep - vaguely equivalent to collapse
and its direct consequences - appear always to be present. Thus the very act of collapse remains
the crucial event. But it may not be very significant, it may be less than spectacular, or it may
even be reduced almost to become negligible.

13

After more detailed measurement some of the volumes were later corrected/increased. The data in Table 2
are the latest available.
14
In Slovene, the expression dvorana means a very big room.

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France [u{ter{i~: Are collapse dolines formed only by collapse?

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Thanks to Dr. David J. Lowe for smoothing the text, and many little suggestions which improved the contents.

REFERENCES
Bren~i~, M., 1992: Ko{elevc (Summary15). Na{e jame 34, 41 - 51, Ljubljana.
Central cave register of Slovenia, maintained by the Speleological Association of Slovenia and the
Karst Research Institute ZRC SAZU.
Chorley, R.J., Kennedy, B.A., 1971: Physical geography, a systems approach. Prentice-Hall International, 1 - 370, London.
Cramer, H., 1944: Die Systematik der Karstdolinen. Neues Jahrbuch fr Mineralogie, Geologie,
und Palontologie, Beilage Band, Abt. B, 85, 293-382.
Cviji, J., 1893: Der Karstphnomen. Geographische Abhandlungen, 5, 217 - 329, Wien.
Cviji, J., 1895: Karst, geografska monografija. [tamparija kraljevine Srbije, 1 - 173, Beograd.
Dublyansky, V.N., Dublyansky, Y.V., 2000: The role of condensation in karst hydrology and speleogenesis. In A.B. Klimchouk, D.C.Ford, A.N. Palmer, W. Dreybrodt (eds.): Speleogenesis. National spelological society, 100-112, Huntsville.
Ford, D. C., Williams, P.W., 1989: Karst geomorphology and hydrology. Unwin Hyman, 1 - 601,
London.
Gams, I., 1966: Factors and dynamics of corrosion of the carbonatic rocks in the Dinaric and
Alpine karst of Slovenia (Summary). Geografski vestnik 38, 11 -68, Ljubljana.
Habi~, P., 1963: Dolines en forme de puits, dites koli{evke, et le cours deau soutterain (Rsum).
Trei jugoslavenski spelolo{ki kongres. Speleolo{ki savez Jugoslavije, Sarajevo, 1-272,
Sarajevo.
Jennings, J., 1975: Doline morphometry as a morphogenetic tool: New Zealand example. New
Zealand geographer, 31, 6 - 25.
Kortnik J., [u{ter{i~ F.: Modelling the stability of a very large cave room Case study: Brezno pri
Medvedovi konti. Acta carsologica, (this volume), Ljubljana.
Kunaver, J., 1960: Brezno pri Medvedovi konti na Pokljuki (Summary). Na{e jame, 2, 1-2, 30 - 39,
Ljubljana.
Marussig, M., Velkovrh, F., 1959: Gradi{nica (Zusammenfassung). Na{e jame, 1 (1), 24 - 28,
Ljubljana.
Mc Connell, H., J.M., Horn, 1972: Probabilities of surface karst. In: R.J. Chorley (Ed.): Spatial
analysis in geomorphology. Harper & Row, 111-133, London.
Renault, Ph., 1967: Contribution a ltude des actions mcaniques dans la spleogenese. Annales
de splologie, 22, 1, 5 - 596.
Scheidegger, A. E., 1961, Theoretical geomorphology. Springer, 1-333, Berlin.
15

The titles of summaries/abstracts (if they exist) are given just to show the foreign reader the contents of the
original texts, which are, however, considered in the whole.

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Summerfield, M.A., 1991: Global geomorphology. Longman Scientific & Technical, 1 - 537, Singapore.
[u{ter{i~, F., 1973: On the problems of collapse dolinas and allied forms of high Notranjsko (Southcentral Slovenia) (Summary). Geografski vestnik, 45, 71-86, Ljubljana.
[u{ter{i~, F., 1974: Some metric problems on the collapse dolinas (Summary). Geografski vestnik,
46, 27-46, Ljubljana.
[u{ter{i~, F., 1983: A simple model of the collapse dolines transformation (Summary). Acta carsologica, 12, 1 - 32, Ljubljana.
[u{ter{i~, F., 1994: The Kloka cave and speleo-inception (Summary). Na{e jame, 36, 9 - 30, Ljubljana.
[u{ter{i~, F., 1996: The pure karst model. Cave and karst science, 23 (1), 25 - 32.
[u{ter{i~, F., 1997: Rakovska kukava - collapse or tumour doline?. Acta carsologica, 25, 251-289,
Ljubljana.
[u{ter{i~, F., 1998: Interaction between tha cave system and the lowering karst surface. Case study:
La{ki Ravnik. Acta carsologica, 27 (3), 115 - 138, Ljubljana.
[u{ter{i~, F., 2000: Speleogenesis in the Ljubljanica river drainage basin, Slovenia. In A.B. Klimchouk, D.C.Ford, A.N. Palmer, W. Dreybrodt (Eds.): Spelogenesis. National speleological
society, 397 - 406, Huntsville.
Worthington, S.R.H., 1991: Karst hydrogeology of the Canadian Rocky Mountains. Unpubl. PhD
thesis, Mc Master University, 1 - 227.

ALI SO UDORNICE ZGOLJ POSLEDICA UDORA?

Povzetek
V krasoslovju je malo jasnih in ostrih definicij. Vsekakor pa spada pomovanje udornic med
tiste redke izjeme, katerih podstat se zdi nedvoumna in se jim zato definicija e ve~ kot stoletje ni
spremenila. Namen tega prispevka je pokazati, da tudi temu ni ravno tako. ^etudi ostaja osnovna
zamisel bolj ali manj enaka, kaejo terenska opazovanja precej divergentno podobo. Tako se seveda {iri tudi pojem udornice. V nadalnjem besedilu razvr{~am osnovne tipe udornic na osnovi splo{ne teorije sistemov; ni pa osnovni namen tega ~lanka intepretirati udornice na tak na~in.
@e sam pogled na Cvijievo (1895, 42 ) risbo prereza ^rne jame v sistemu Postojnske jame
(Sl. 2) zadostuje, da nam je jasno, kaj je hotel povedati H. Cramer (1944), ko je zapisal (o.c.,
p.327): Udornica lahko kae odprte povezave s podaj lee~o jamo in jo kot tak{no spoznamo brez
teav. Krajeven udor jamskega stropa je posedica izgube stabilnosti v jamskem oboku. Le to sproi
stalno znievanje kra{kega povr{ja.... (= odpiranje kra{kih jam zaradi denudacije zemeljskega
povr{ja. ).
Krasoslovne monografije dvajsetega stoletja lepo odsevajo zna~ilno enotnost osnovnih pojmovanj (Sl. 1). Med temi kae poudariti mimogrede privzet aksiom, da dvorane pod udornicami
neogibno izvotli sistemski odtok16. Enako brez prave osnove se je uveljavilo na~elo ergodi~nosti,
16

Mi{ljeno v smislu odvajanja vode iz sistema po freatinih ali epifreatinih kanalih. Nasprotje votlinam, ki
bi nastale kot posledica delovanja preniklih padavinskih voda v nepreeti coni.

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France [u{ter{i~: Are collapse dolines formed only by collapse?

kot neposredna posledica pa so vstopili zna~ilno davisianisti~ni pojmi kot mlade in stare udornice. Brez globlje misli o procesih so tiste z ve~ stenami obveljele za mlade, tiste z malo ali celo
brez sten pa za stare.
Osnovni procesi, ki (pre)oblikujejo jamsko dvorano v udornico in to dalje v njen fantom17 so:
Preglednica 1.
RM
odna{anje podorne gmote
FC
nastajanje jamske dvorane
AP blianje dvorane povr{ju / znievanje povr{ja
CL
udor / odprtje na povr{je
SR
vzopreden umik pobo~ij
DD
postopno brisanje zaradi denudacije

NASTAJANJE VOTLINE
(NEGATIVNE MASE)
NASTANEK UDORNICE
(PRE)OBLIKOVANJE

Odprtje na povr{je je tisti logi~ni korak, ki podzemski kra{ki pojav (dvorano) prevede v povr{inskega. Sam dogodek ni bistveno kra{ki - udor je kozmopolitski proces, ki ni vezan na nek dolo~en geomorfni sistem (F. [u{ter{i~, 1996). Z drugo besedo, to je reakcija kamninske gmote, ki je
bila vrena iz mehanskega ravnoteja, ne glede na to zakaj in kako je bilo poru{eno.
Misel, da mora biti izvorna jamska dvorana ob nastajanju udornice zelo velika se zdi pravilo.
Mnoga terenska merjenja (F. [u{ter{i~, 1973, 1974, 1997) pa, nasprotno, kaejo, da se lahko velikanske udornice razvijejo iz kra{kih votlin, katerih tlorisi niso prav veliki. To bi lahko bilo posledica:
obstoja navpi~no orientiranih negativnih mas (votlin v mati~ni kamnini),
ali/in
stalnega odna{anja gmote, ki se potegne {e dale~ v ~as, ko se udornici e (pre)oblikujejo pobo~ja.
Prvo misel podpira poloaj vhodne udornice v Vranjo jamo (8818) severno od Planinskega
polja. Do zru{enja je pri{lo prav na mestu freati~nega skoka med dvema za~etnima horizontoma
(F. [u{ter{i~, 1996). Podobni slu~aji so vsaj zelo verjetni {e drugod v sistemu Najdene jame (259).
Druga razlaga pride v po{tev tam, kjer leijo zelo velike udornice prav na mestih, kjer podzemski
tokovi pre~kajo krajevne strine prelome (glej F. [u{ter{i~, 1997).
U~inkovanje sistemskega odtoka kot dejavnika odna{anja mase smo sprejeli kot nujno. Ni pa
re~eno, da je edino. V nekaterih slu~ajih, kot npr. Udornica Dolec v sistemu Najdene jame, se zdi,
da je danes naju~ikovitej{i faktor odna{anja kamnine korzija kondenzne vode.
^eprav v literaturi ve~inoma ni omenjeno, je poslednje dogajanje v zgodovini udornice postopno izgubljanje njene identitete zaradi denudacije. Le ta deluje stalno in u~inkuje enako na dno
17
18

Glej dalje!
Krepko tiskane {tevilke v oklepaju so katastrske (identifikacijske) {tevilke jam po katastru jam Slovenije, ki
ga vodita Jamarska zveza Slovenije in In{tutut za raziskovanje krasa, ZRC SAZU.

227

Acta carsologica, 29/2 (2000)

udornice kot na okoli{ko povr{je. S~asoma ga znia tako, da tudi jamski rovi, ki so botrovali nastanku udornice, preidejo najprej v brezstrope in nato v fantomske jame (F. [u{ter{i~, 1998). Ker je
denudacija do neke mere kaoti~en proces, moremo pri~akovati, da v dalj{em ~asu popolnoma zabri{e tudi samo globel v kra{kem povr{ju. Dokler je {e zaznavna, povr{je pa lei e nije od nekdanje jamske dvorane in moremo njen izvor ugotoviti le posredno, lahko po analogiji s fantomsko
jamo tako udornico imenujemo fantomska udornica. Lahko pri~akujemo, da so razli~ne globeli v
kra{kem povr{ju, ki jim neposredno ne moremo dolo~iti izvora, pravzaprav fantomi nekdanjih
votlin.
Na prvi pogled se zdi, da procesi, na{teti v Preglednici 1, delujejo v izrazitem ~asovnem zaporedju in bolj ali manj posami~. Terenska opazovanja pa te poenostavitve me podpirajo. [e ve~;
kaejo, da so med na{tetimi procesi mone {tevilne kombinacije, katerih izidi so med seboj lahko
tako razli~ni, da je enotna shema nemogo~a
Navedeni procesi si res lahko sledijo v jasnem zaporedju, lahko pa delujeju tudi v druga~nem
vrstnem redu ali celo po ve~ naenkrat. Na slikah 3. in 4. ter v spremljajo~em besedilu prikazujem
nekaj kombinacij, ki pojasnjujejo ve~ino udornic v slovenskem prostoru. Na zgornjem delu posami~ne slike kaejo odebeljene ~rte ~ase, ko delujejo posamezni procesi (kratice so angle{ke), spodaj pa so preseki udornic ob posameznih pomebnej{ih trenutkih. ^asovna lestvica je seveda precej
poljubna.
^e privzamemo odna{anje gmote s pomo~jo sistemskega odtoka za bistveno, so udornice glede
na ta proces lahko odprti ali zaprti sistemi. Poudariti pa je treba, da je kon~ni rezultat - fantomske
udornice - vedno enak, ne glede na predzgodovino. Zelo razli~ne pa so lahko prostornine, pa~ v
odvisnosti od tega, v kak{nih okoli{~inah se je sistem zaprl.
Izid C1: popolnoma zaprt sistem, stabilen strop (Sl. 3, C1).
Z izrazom popolnoma zaprt sistem imamo v mislih, da se je odna{anje zru{ene gmote ko~alo
davno prej, kot se je jamski strop uravnoteil v paraboli~ni lok. Dokler se strop {e ru{i, zadobi
dvorana bolj ali manj okroglasto obliko, podorni material pa jo odree od preostalega jamskega
spleta. Ker je strop mehansko uravnoteen (A. Scheidegger, 1961), se nadalnje preoblikovanje
ustavi, dokler denudacija dvorane ne odpre z vrha. Osnovni vtis o tej vrsti jame/dvorane lahko
bralec dobi pri J. Kortniku in F. [u{ter{i~u (2000 / v tej knjigi, str. 152, Sl. 1)
Izid C2: popolnoma zaprt sistem, nestabilen strop (Sl. 3, C2).
V nekaterih primerih se zdi, da se jamski prostor ne more uravnoteiti. ^etudi je tloris do neke
mere izometri~en, je strop dvorane zelo nepravilen, na njem manjka sige in podor na jamskem dnu
pa je videti sve. Kae, da se take jame podirajo, dokler ne doseejo povr{ja in ne preidejo v
udornice.
Alternativni poti k izidoma C1 in C2 vodita iz freati~nega skoka. (F. [u{ter{i~, 1996). V tem
primeru bo tloris dvorane komaj kaj ve~ji od sosednjih jamskih rovov, postornina pa bo razporejena vertikalno. Jamski strop verjetno ne bo zelo nestabilen; udor se bo zgodil {ele, ko bo denudacija dovolj stanj{ala strop. Nastala bo ozka in globoka udornica. Vzporedni umik pobo~ij pa bo
opravil svoje in kmalu bo povsem podobna ostalim. Zdi se, da je take vrste udor vhodno brezno
Gradi{nice (86 / M. Marussig & F. Velkovrh, 1959).

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France [u{ter{i~: Are collapse dolines formed only by collapse?

Izid C3: Hipoteti~en slu~aj: delno odprt sistem; zapora, ko se dvorana odpre na povr{je.
(Sl. 3, C3).
P. Habi~ (1963) je opazil, da so dnesa udornic juno od Ljubljanskega vrha urejena v nekaj
izrazitih vi{inskih pasov, ne glede kako visoko so njihovi robovi. Sklepal je, da je to posledica
dveh dejstev:
da so nekdanje jame nastale v izrazitih nivojih in
da je odna{anje podora trajalo do trenutka, ko so udornice zazijale na povr{je.
Kasnej{a opazovanja (M. Bren~i~, 1992; F. [u{ter{i~, 1994) so prvo postavko ovrgla, saj na
tem ozemlju ni najti drugega kot odlomke freati~nih kanalov19. Druga misel tiho privzema, da so
stropi udornic v ~asu zru{enja ve~ine stropa priblino enako debeli. Habi~ (o.c.) je tudi spregledal,
da bi morale biti udornice v vi{jih nivojih starej{e kot v nijih, ~esar pa terenska opazvanja ne
potrjujejo.
Izid O1: popolnoma odprt sistem, plitev podzemski tok (Fig. 4, O1)20.
V Rakovem [kocjanu poteka jamski sistem blizu povr{ja. Precej spremenljiva litologija (menjavanje neplastovitih in plastovitih apnencev) je povzro~ila nastanek sorazmerno velikih dvoran
in tesnih prehodov med njimi. Zaradi bliine povr{ja se stropi dvoran ru{ijo in odpirajo na povr{je,
vodni tok pa uspe bolj ali manj sproti odstranjevati ru{evine. Vzporeden umik pobo~ij udornice {iri
in te postopoma prera{~ajo v kanjon, ta pa dalje v kra{ko dolino.
Izid O2: popolnoma odprt sistem, plitev podzemski tok (Fig. 4 O2)21.
Na primeru Rakovske kukave sem (F. [u{ter{i~, 1997) pokazal, da iz sorazmerno majhnih
dvoran lahko nastanejo zelo velike udornice. [e ve~ji primer je La{ka kukava. Globoka je okrog
100 m, njena prostornina pa je ve~ja od 4 Mm3 (Preglednica 2). Na njenem dnu sta danes dve zelo
aktivni ari{~i odna{anja (F. [u{ter{i~, 1974). Po predloeni razlagi se podzemska voda teko prebija preko strinih prelomov, ki potekajo po dalj{ih oseh kukav in kljub stalnemu sesipanju stropa
vztraja bolj ali manj na istem mestu. ^e proces traja dovolj dolgo, tudi manj{a jamska dvorana
polagoma preraste v zelo veliko udornico in vodni tok se kon~no pojavi na povr{ju. Tak{ni primeri
pa so seveda redki.
Poudariti je treba, da so prostornine najve~jih udornic (kukav) lahko celo za faktor 20 ve~je od
najve~jih jamskih dvoran v okolici. Dvorane velikostnega reda kukav so mehansko nemogo~e.
(F. [u{ter{i~, 1973).

19

Ki pa niso vezani na neke nivoje, ampak na vi{insko dosti bolj ohlapno urejene svenje (S. Worthington,
1991)
20
Zadnja stopnja razvoje udornice (fantomska udornica ) je na tej sliki izpu{ena (izida O1 in O2).
21
Merili obeh slik sta zelo razlini. Prostornine udornic drugega tipa (O2) so lahko celo stokrat veje kot v
prvem primeru.

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Acta carsologica, 29/2 (2000)

Preglednica 2: Prostornine kukav in prostornine najve~jih znanih jamskih dvoran v okolici

(F. [u{ter{i~ 22, 1973).
Kukave
La{ka kukava
Smrkovca
Rakovska kukava
Dolga dolina
Gladovec
Ivanjska kukava
Cerkni{ka kukava

4.17
1.6
1.35
1.1
0.92
0.85
0.53

Mm
Mm3
Mm3
Mm3
Mm3
Mm3
Mm3

Velike jamske dvorane

Gradi{nica / Blatna dvorana
Najdena jama / Putickova dv.
Najdena jama / Sul~eva dv.
Logar~ek / Blatna dvorana
Jama za Bukovim vrhom
Ma~kovca / Velika dvorana
Logar~ek / Podorna dvorana

37.5
7.2
5.0
4.2
3.9
2.4
1.2

104 m3
104 m3
104 m3
104 m3
104 m3
104 m3
104 m3

*
Prej na{teti izidi niso edini moni. S kombiniranjem razli~nih dolin trajanja posameznih procesov in zapiranjem sistema ob druga~nih pogojih, lahko dobimo {e druge teoreti~ne modele. Navedeni pa~ zadostujejo, da razloimo ve~ino udornic v pore~ju kra{ke Ljubljanice.
Povedano lahko povzamemo:
Prikazani modeli so pokazali, da so udornice povr{inski kra{ki pojavi, ki pa koreninijo v podzemlju. Bolj izostreno bi jih lahko opisali kot nekra{ke projekcije kra{kih votlin na povr{je.
Med glavnimi tipi premikanja gmot, kot jih navaja M. Summerfield (1991, 169, Tab. 7.5) se v
~asu nastajanja in nadalnjega razvolja udornic lahko pojavijo vsi, ki jih pokriva ohlapna streha
podor. Tako samo zru{enje jamskega stropa ostaja odlo~ilen dogodek. Ni pa nujno, da bi
bilo zelo opazno - po prostornini vpletene gmote je lahko skoraj zanemarljivo.

ZAHVALA
Dr. Davidu J. Loweju se zahvaljujem za natan~no glajenje angle{kega besedila in drobne napotke, ki so ga izbolj{ali tudi vsebinsko.

22

Ponovljene, natannej{e meritve so pokazale, da so resnine prostornine veje od prvotno ocenjenih. Podatki v Preglednici 2 so zadnji razpololjivi.

230