FUNCTION AND ACOUSTIC PROPERTIES OF ANCIENT

GREEK THEATRE MASKS

Alexandros Tsilfidis1 , Thanos Vovolis2 , Eleftheria Georganti1 , and John
Mourjopoulos1
1

Audio and Acoustic Technology Group, Electrical and Computer Engineering

Department, University of Patras, Patras 26500, Greece
2
Mask, Costume, Set Designer, Visiting Professor (2007-2010), Dramatic Institute,
Stockholm, Sweden

Abstract
Masks were always used by the actors of the ancient Greek theatrical plays. Their
theatrical function indicates an integral connection between the performers, the plot and
the acoustics of the open-air ancient theatres which has not been explored in the past.
Although the exact form, shape and material of such masks can be only deduced from
limited archaeological finds, based on these and other sources, a number of typical mask
templates were constructed covering most of the potential alternative forms. For these
mask templates, the acoustic frequency response, the angle-dependent radiation and the
actors voice self-perception were tested via use of a KEMAR manikin and appropriate
post processing. The novel results illustrate important acoustic and voice communication
aspects of these masks.
Keywords: Ancient Greek theatre, theatron, masks, prosopon, acoustical masks, mask
acoustic radiation, directivity, self-perception

Introduction

Theatre masks were essential elements of the ancient Greek theatre tradition, having a dramatic impact on the artistic performance. Apart from the obvious change of the visual
appearance of the actors, the masks also altered the acoustic characteristics of their voices.
Therefore, both from the spectators and the actors point of view these masks significantly
modified the acoustic events and inevitably transformed the overall theatrical experience. This
work investigates the acoustic properties of the ancient Greek theatre masks and is extending
an earlier pilot study by the authors on the same topic [9]. For that study a generic mask
template was used and limited acoustic measurements were performed. Here, given that the
archaeological excavations have not revealed any ancient theatre mask template, several mask
prototypes were constructed, whose exact form, shape and material was deduced from the
limited archaeological data available. For the construction, the evidence of mask properties
was based on ancient vase and relief representations and marble templates. These generic prototypes were measured using a KEMAR dummy head [4], revealing novel information on the
1

masks frequency response, the masks radiation directivity pattern and the in-masks binaural
voice self-perception. The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. In Section 2 the
theatrical function of the masks in ancient Greece is discussed and the historic framework is
presented. Then in Sections 2.1 and 2.2, known facts on the ancient masks form and features
are presented and the construction of the generic prototypes is described. In Section 3.1 the
procedure of the acoustic measurements is described while Section 3.2 presents the results.
Finally, conclusions are given in Section 4.

2
2.1

The form and theatrical function of masks

Historic aspects

All theatrical forms that were first developed in Athens during the 6th and 5th centuries
BC, whether it was for tragedy, comedy or satyr plays, were forms of masked drama, i.e.
the actors always performed wearing masks. Before their use in theatrical plays in ancient
Greece, masks were used in rituals connected especially with the cults of Dionysus, Artemis
and Demeter. According to Aristotle no one knows who introduced the comic masks but he
implies the tragic mask was introduced at a specific historical moment [2].
Ancient testimony attests that the shift from preexisting narrative modes of rhapsodic
contests and oral epic to the newer poetic species of dramatic mode was made in mid 6th
century BC. Masks had never been used in epic performance before and were until then
associated only with rituals. It seems that the radical innovation of dramatic impersonation
needed the mask as an agent of the transformation of the actor in a way that the human face
was obviously inadequate to achieve. Mask was an object endowed with agency, allowing a
process of transformation of the actor [13]. So, the mask was reinvented for the stage and
became one of the defining elements of its theatricality, noting also that during ancient plays,
female roles were always performed by appropriately masked male actors.
The word used in 5th century BC Greece to connote mask was prosopon, the same term
used for the human face. Prosopon means the subject which exists before the eyes, but
also a dramatic persona, the mask. In the mental universe of ancient Greece there was no
distinction between the mask and the face. The mask was considered as another face and not
an object that conceals and covers the true face [12]. The idea of the mask as concealment and
disguise that hides the true face was developed later as a result of the Hebrew and Christian
monotheistic religions [6].
There is not a single theatre mask surviving from classical times today, which indicates
how fragile they must have been. Theatre masks were probably made of perishable materials
much more easily decomposed than ceramics, the material which was used for some of the
masks for the rituals performed in honor of Artemis and Dionysus. Evidence indicates that
masks, most likely were made of linen cloth dipped in plaster which was then laid in moulds
or pieces of textile glued together [1].
The contemporary information about the mask form and shape comes then only from
secondary sources; images of theatre masks painted on ceramics, marble reliefs and ornamental
marble copies (see Fig. 1). Some additional information about ancient Greek theatre masks
can be derived from Polluxs Onomasticon, an encyclopedia written during the Roman times
and Suda Lexicon, an 10th century AD Byzantine encyclopedia [7, 14].

Figure 1: Archaeological finds illustrating the form and shape of masks: (a) Nafplion museum
template, (b), (c) vase and relief representations, (d) Roman era mask, (e)-(g) face mask vase
representations, (h) Keramikos museum face mask marble template.

2.2

Mask form and features

The Greek theatre masks most likely covered the entire head. All documentation shows that
up to the end of the 5th century BC theatre masks were closely fitted to the head. The size
was probably not much larger than the head and the masks had rather small mouth and eye
openings. On the masks depicted on ceramics, both the whites and the pupils of the eyes are
painted, suggesting that the eye holes of the original masks were as small in size as the pupils
of a living person. It is unclear whether the mask was covering the actors ears or not, noting
that this feature would greatly affect the level and perception of the speakers own voice and
of external sounds.
Generally, this form dictates some important functionalities for the masks:
1. The mask was the instrument to enhance and alter the voice level within the entire theatre space and endow the voice with a chosen directional delivery. According to Aristotle
acting is a matter of voice and there are three qualities that are important volume, harmony, rhythm. All these qualities are especially important for communication in the
outdoor open-air theatres [12].
2. Due to the masks which were covering the entire head and functioning as a resonance
chamber, timbral modifications to the actors voice are imposed (discussed in more detail
in Section 3.2). Hence, in performing terms, the mask functions as the actors own
resonance chamber, connecting him to the greater resonance generated by the theatre
acoustics. Furthermore, this mask resonance also greatly affects and modifies the actors
self-awareness of his own voice delivery (see also Section 3.2.4). [12]
3. From the authors previous research with masked theatrical plays, it is evident that
this restricted visual field helped the actor to concentrate [12]. As the gaze is directed
through the mask eye holes, the visual field becomes very narrow and after a while
the actor has the feeling that he is looking through one single eye hole a third eye
placed in the area between the eyebrows. The gaze can be only directed to one point,
rather like a lens that focuses the rays of light [12]. It can be also argued that this
minimization of sight leads to the maximization of listening to the other actors, leading
to an enhanced awareness of their presence based not so much on visual but more on
auditory perception. i.e. to the act of akroasis, the process of conscious and active
listening[12].
4. The mask influences the actor spatial awareness and mobility leading to the rationalisation of the movements and gestures. The modification of the actors point of view and
mobility promotes an increased awareness of his own body axis, the spine, the pelvis and
the physical actions. In an outdoor theatre the actor has not only to express the role but
also, simultaneously, project it to the audience through his presence and movements.
In this way, the actor must develop presence, relate to the performing space, and must
reject all the personal, parasitical movements of everyday life [12].
Hence, from a theatrical point of view, the mask creates an inner space for the actor
through which the actor is able to optimally acoustically communicate with the theatre space.
The mask is a medium for the expansion of the actors presence which can create intimacy
by acoustics in a theatre space of great size, where acoustics is a way of forming a network
4

of relations between actor, audience, theatre space and the surrounding landscape. Furthermore, by restricting the visual dramatic facial gestures and movements via the use of the
mask, this kind of theatre is not centered upon the individual actor, or its own personal
role-interpretation, but instead it is relying upon the chorus and the narration, so that the
performance can extend beyond the results achieved by the individual performer [12].
From a visual point of view, the mask with its lack of a definite expression and with
its open inexpressive face becomes a projection screen for the text, since the expressionless
appearance of the mask allows the projection of different expressions upon it. The visual
connection between theatre and mask makes the mask a mythical topos for the actor and the
spectator, a space focused on the narrative, a projection screen for the text. Hence, the mask
is part of this theatre form as much as is the landscape [12].
Furthermore, tragedy texts were based on the shared cultural heritage founded in the
myths and Homeric epics and this mythic material was well known and all the characters
were part of the Greek mythology. In this sense, the mask represented the face given to the
tragic archetypes during their temporary incarnation, their returning from the landscape of
the dead. Hence, the mask as the mythical face, functioned for the transformation of the
actual acting area of the theatre into the mental and symbolic space where the dramatic act
of Mythos is unfolded. The mask allowed the stage to be transformed into the required space
by the plot, e.g. the Palace of Agamemnon, the temple of Apollo in Delphi or Athenas temple
in Athens [12]. Such a theatrical space is defined as a heterotopia; where the real sites found
within the culture are simultaneously represented and inverted by the theatrical performance
space [3].

2.3

Construction of mask templates

The construction of the mask templates A1-A5 (see Table 1 and Fig. 2) was based on prototypes derived from typical finds such as those depicted in Fig. 1. For the 3D form, 2 alternative
versions were developed: mask templates A1 and A2 are full-head enclosing (helmet-like, also
enclosing the ears) and are based on properties shown in Fig. 1 (a)-(d); mask templates A3-A5
also cover the head but not the ears, based on properties shown in Fig. 1 (e)-(h). For these
open-ear masks, 2 different sizes were created, normal and small. In all cases, the sculpturing
details of the face, the size of eye openings and the nose, were based on the surviving marble
mask template in Fig. 1(h). With respect of the mouth opening, the size is as in Fig. 1(h)
which also was found from previous templates constructed by one of the current authors to
facilitate mouth and chin movemets for tenor singing during performances of the Orfeo Monteverdi opera [8]. The hairstyle which was as integral component of the ancient masks, was
either incorporated in the sculpturing profile, or for some templates was added as a fluxen
hairdo (Fig. 2 (a) and (b)). Given that there is the possibility that some internal horn could
have been attached between the actors mouth and the mask mouth opening, a template was
constructed having such a short (length 2 cm) pre-constructed horn internally attached to
the mouth opening, see Fig. 2 (c) and Table 1. Supporting elements were fitted inside the
mask, in order to be able to stabilize the mask on the dummy head. The material used for
construction, was fluid stone (having a strength of 310 N/mm2 ) which was hardened for 24
hours.

Mask template
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5

Shape
ears enclosed
ears enclosed
ears not enclosed
ears not enclosed
ears not enclosed

Size
normal
normal
normal
small
small

mouth horn
yes
-

fluxen hairdo
yes

Table 1: Constructed mask template index and properties

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Figure 2: Typical templates for the constructed masks: (a) without fluxen hairdo, (b) with
fluxen hairdo, (c) with inner mouth horn, (d) with open and closed ears.

3
3.1

Acoustic measurements of masks

Measurement procedure

The measurements were conducted using the 45 BM KEMAR dummy head and torso simulator with built-in mouth simulator [4], placed on a stand and at a height of 1.7 m from
the ground. For the measurements, the manikin was placed on an open-air space, devoid of
other reflecting surfaces apart from the ground and having a low environmental noise (approx.
45 dBA). These conditions relate as close as possible to the performing space of an ancient
theatre, taking into account that if required, with subsequent processing the ground reflection
may be removed. The masks were carefully fitted in the dummy head, in order to reassure
that the dummy head mouth simulator coincides with the mask mouth (see Fig. 4). Aspects
of any fitting misalignment are discussed in the Appendix.
For excitation, sweep signals (frequency range: 100 Hz to 20000 Hz and duration: 15
seconds) were transmitted through the built-in Mouth Simulator and recorded through: (i) a
measurement condenser microphone placed at a distance of 1 m and at the same height as the
manikin-mask mouth opening for the far-field measurement and (ii) in-ear microphones for the
binaural measurements. From the measured sweeps, impulse response functions were derived
after deconvolution of the source excitation signal. The recorded response to the excitation
signal was measured both on-axis (azimuth angle = 0 ) and at angles = 30 through to
180 at increments of 30 . Measurements were taken for both the manikin without the mask
and with each of the masks in Table 1, for each azimuth angle. The recordings were made
at 48 kHz with a 16-bit precision using a RME Fireface soundcard connected to a desktop
computer via a firewire interface. The acoustic measurements were made using a Macbook
Pro laptop and the FuzzMeasure Pro 3 [5]. The measurement setup is shown in Fig. 3.
Let h,i (n) be the discrete-time impulse response measured in the azimuth angle when
the mask is placed on the manikin and g (n) be the corresponding response measured when
the mask is not placed on the manikin. Note that here n denotes the discrete time index and
i denotes the different mask prototype. The magnitude spectrum of these impulse responses
in dB, are given by:
dB
(1)
H,i
(k) = 20 log10 (|H,i (k)|)
and
GdB
(k) = 20 log10 (|G (k)|)

(2)

where H,i (k) is the DFT of h,i (n), G (k) is the DFT of g (n) and k denotes the frequency
bin. Hence, G (k) accounts for the manikins frequency-dependent directivity function over
different azimuth angles. Noting that since the combined mask-dummy head system can be
assumed Linear and Time Invariant (LTI), by combining Eq. 1 and 2, the magnitude spectrum
dB (k) (in dB) can be extracted through simple subtraction:
of the mask filter M,i
dB
dB
M,i
(k) = H,i
(k) GdB
(k)

For the subsequent results, all spectra were averaged using a 1/3 octave profiles.

(3)

source-receiver distance
1m

sweep signal

mask

(a)

mask

(b)

sweep signal

Figure 3: Measurement setup for extracting (a) the mask frequency response and (b) the binaural measurement. The sweep signals were reproduced from the manikins mouth simulator
for both setups. In setup (a) the sound was captured via an external microphone, while in
setup (b) the sound was captured via the manikins artificial ears

Figure 4: Mask prototype fitted on the KEMAR manikin

20

10

10

Magnitude (dB)

Magnitude (dB)

20

10

20

10

20

Mean of all measured masks

30
100

200

500

1000

Mean of all measured masks

2000

4000

8000

30
100

16000

200

500

Frequency (Hz)

2000

4000

8000

16000

4000

8000

16000

(b)

20

20

10

10

Magnitude (dB)

Magnitude (dB)

(a)

10

20

10

20

Mean of all measured masks

30
100

1000

Frequency (Hz)

200

500

1000

Mean of all measured masks

2000

4000

8000

30
100

16000

Frequency (Hz)

200

500

1000

2000

Frequency (Hz)

(c)

(d)

Figure 5: Magnitude frequency responses MdB (k) of all measured masks for a source-receiver
distance of 1 m and an azimuth angle of (a) 0 , (b) 60 , (c) 120 , (d) 180 . The black solid
lines represent the mean between different mask templates.

3.2
3.2.1

Results
The frequency response of the masks

Fig. 5 presents the mask frequency responses measured for a source-receiver distance of 1 m
and an azimuth angle of (a) 0 , (b) 60 , (c) 120 , (d) 180 . Given that the spectral differences
of different mask prototypes were not found significant, as can be observed in Fig. 5, the mean
between the 5 measured mask templates was derived as:
dB (k) =
M

5
X

dB
M,i
(k)

(4)

i=1

dB (k) is plotted with black solid lines. From these graphs, the mean
and this spectrum M

of the on axis responses appears to be broadly flat, given also that a mild comb filtering is
present due to the floor reflection. Whilst the frequency range between 800 Hz and 2.5 kHz
appears to be attenuated by approximately 5 dB. As the azimuth angle increases, the mean
response presents stronger resonances, however the overall trend stays rather flat. However,
for the case of 180 , a slight boost in high frequencies can be observed. Note also that the
variation between the responses of the different mask template types is bigger for the mid and
high frequencies above 1 kHz and becomes more significant for the increasing off axis angle.
The above measurements agree with reports describing the listeners experience of employing
such masks in contemporary artistic performances. Some reviews notice a resonance effect of
the masked actors voice while others refer to a muffled effect [12, 11]. Such observation can be
supported by the sharp notches / resonances apparent in the measured frequency responses
for several radiation angles, the comb filtering effect and the on-axis attenuation of the 1 kHz
range.
3.2.2

The combined effect of mask and actors voice

The mean frequency response of the combined effect of mask and actors voice for all measured
mask templates can be derived as:
dB (k) =
H

5
X

dB
H,i
(k)

(5)

i=1

The above response along with the frequency response of the manikin without the mask
(GdB
(k)) are presented in Fig. 6 for a source-receiver distance of 1 m and an azimuth angle
of (a) 0 , (b) 60 , (c) 120 , (d) 180 . From these graphs it appears that the combined actor
and mask response is dominated by the speakers directivity and only mildly affected by the
mask filter effect. However, the comb filtering effect and some high frequency gain for the off
axis cases can be observed due to the mask filter.
3.2.3

The angle-dependent acoustic radiation of the masks

The mean data from the 5 different mask template types and from all azimuth measurements
(0 , 30 , 60 , 90 , 120 , 150 , 180 ) were used in order to extrapolate the mean mask polar
pattern, for different frequency bands. Fig. 7 shows such polar diagrams for the octave bands
centered in 0.25, 1, 2, 4 and 8 kHz.
10

10

10

10

Magnitude (dB)

Magnitude (dB)

10

20
30
40
50
60
70
100

20
30
40
50
60

0dB(k)
H
G dB
0 (k)
200

500

1000

2000

4000

8000

70
100

16000

6dB
H
0 (k)
G dB
6 0 (k)
200

500

Frequency (Hz)

10

10

20
30
40
50

70
100

2000

4000

8000

16000

4000

8000

16000

(b)
10

Magnitude (dB)

Magnitude (dB)

(a)
10

60

1000

Frequency (Hz)

20
30
40
50
60

1dB
H
2 0(k)
G dB
1 2 0(k)
200

500

1000

2000

4000

8000

16000

Frequency (Hz)

70
100

1dB
H
8 0(k)
G dB
1 8 0(k)
200

500

1000

2000

Frequency (Hz)

(c)

(d)

Figure 6: Mean magnitude frequency response when the masks are placed on the manikin
dB (k) (black lines) and frequency response of the manikin without a mask GdB (k) (red
H

lines). The source-receiver distance was 1 m and the azimuth angles were: (a) 0 , (b) 60 , (c)
120 , (d) 180 .

11

Figure 7: Polar patterns for the mask filter showing the mask radiation for octave bands
centered at 0.25, 1,2,4 and 8 kHz.
These results show that the masks enhance the source off-axis (180 ) gain for all frequencies, except for the 2 kHz octave band where the mask does not significantly change the actors
voice. For the 180 case, the masks practically boost the voice emitted from the back of the
actors head. For the low frequency 250 Hz band the mask slightly attenuates the on axis
response and boosts the actors voice from = 60 to = 180 . Whilst for the sides, the high
frequency content (4 and 8 kHz) is attenuated.
For mid-low frequencies below 1 kHz, there is a progressive amplification up to 5 dB
due to the mask radiation from = 90 to = 180 . Potentially, this property could be
advantageous for speech intelligibility for off-axis radiation angles inside the amphitheatric
semi-circular shape of the ancient Greek theatres, since it would increase relative voice levels
towards the more problematic sides of the cavea. Note that the majority of the formants
of the common modern Greek vowels fall within this same frequency range and to those
corresponding to the cries highlighting important and dramatic moments in ancient Greek
tragedies [9]. These results were also verified from modern masked theatre reports, referring
to a boost for on the off-axis speech level when the actors wore their masks [12].
3.2.4

The binaural self-perception effect

The self perception of actors wearing the masks is here assessed in a simplified way, taking into
account only the transmitted acoustic path from the mouth simulator to each ear entrance,
hence not examining any more complex mechanisms such as bone conduction. Hence here
the relative gain of the signals for the mask wearing dummy head was measured via the
corresponding in-ear impulse responses. From those, the 1/3 octave-band smoothed frequency
response were derived. Fig. 8 (a) and (b) shows such responses showing the binaural selfperception effect for an azimuth angle of 0 (in the entrance of the left and right ear canals
of the speaker, as measured by the manikins in-ear mics). The black solid lines show the
mean response measured from different mask template types, while the dashed lines show the
frequency response measurement measured for the manikin without mask. Since the mask
12

10

10

10

Magnitude (dB)

Magnitude (dB)

10

20

30

40

20

30

40
Mean of all measured masks
Without mask

50
100

200

500

1000

2000

Mean of all measured masks

Without mask
4000

8000

16000

Frequency (Hz)

50
100

200

500

1000

2000

4000

8000

16000

Frequency (Hz)

(a)

(b)

Figure 8: Frequency response measured at the manikins ears when masks were fitted for (a)
the left and (b) the right ear. The black solid lines represent the mean spectrum between
different masks, while the black dashed lines represent the measurements without mask.
was fixed on the manikins head, the mask response could not significantly change for the other
measured azimuth angles, even for the case for mask templates having open ears (see Fig. 2
(d)).
The mask significantly amplifies the speech signal levels reaching the manikins ears even
for mask templates leaving open its ears. This level boost is in average 18 dB and the
effect is greater for high frequencies. In all tested cases, the binaural self-perception level
variation effect of the measured masks was pronounced, clearly drastically increasing the
sound pressure level from the actors own voice. This effect may explain the difficulty of
contemporary mask-wearing theatre actors to perform with such theatrical masks without
proper training and lengthy adaptation. Note again, that these measurements do not take
into account bone conduction effects which play a significant role in the actors auditory self
perception, especially in the low frequency range. It is evident that ancient actors should have
been highly trained to adapt their voice delivery and sustain such increased sound levels at
their own ears, over the duration of ancient drama performances. It should be noted that in
order to ensure proper intelligibility over theatre audience distances of up to 60 m, levels of at
least 90 dBA should be produced by the actors hence indicating that with masks, the potential
in-ear levels could be up to 110 dBA. This leaves open the possibility that the actors wore
some kind of earplugs for protecting their hearing from prospective damage and for ensuring
comfortable listening during the performance. It should be noted here that according to the
authors experience earplugs are often employed during many modern theatre performances
with masked actors.

Discussion

From the analysis of the mask measurements several aspects concerning the mask functionality
from an acoustical point of view have been revealed.
The broad on-axis frequency response of masks was found to be flat and for all radiation
13

angles the mask imposes comb filtering effects that will alter the timbal characteristics of the
actors voice. Typically, a muffled timbal character is imposed by such mask filter. The
frequency response variation between the constructed mask templates (varied in size, mouth
horn, open vs. closed ear openings) was not found to be significant, but any such differences
became more pronounced for off-axis radiation.
The mask altered the voice radiation from the manikin. Significantly, the mask was found
to amplify radiation for angles = 180 for all frequencies except for those around 2 kHz,
indicating a potential gain in voice level from the back of the actors head. For mid-low
frequencies below 1 kHz, a radiation gain of up to 5 dB was measured for angles greater than
= 90 .
Although the masks introduced such angle and frequency dependent modifications in the
normal voice radiation, the overall directivity properties of the masked actor were found to
be dominated by the head-torso geometry, typically having a low-pass frequency trend with
increasing angle.
The masks were found to significantly amplify (by up to 18 dB) the speech signal in the ears
of the speaker. This effect is more pronounced for high frequencies (where the related bone
conduction effect is also less significant) and can severely change the actors voice acoustic
self-perception. This indicates that the masked actors own voice level may be so high, so
that ear protectors could have been employed during theatrical performances.

Conclusions and future work

Even though the theatre masks were a major and integral element in ancient Greek theatre,
their acoustic properties are not often considered when the acoustics of ancient theatres are
analyzed. This work presents a first step towards the understanding of the acoustic properties
and functionality of these ancient Greek theatre masks, through measurement and analysis
of carefully constructed prototypes. For the construction of these generic mask models the
available archaeological findings were taken into account. This work has provided some first
results of the angle and frequency dependent response of masked actors:
Except for the frequency range around 2 kHz, some amplification of voice was imposed
by the mask from the back and sides of the actors head.
The timbal property of the mask filter has a comb-like character, so it alters the actors
voice character. The masks generated high voice levels in the actors ears, potentially
requiring the need for some form of ear protection.
From the above, it is not clear how such acoustic features would be useful in the overall
context of the ancient theatrical performance. Nevertheless, given that such responses can
be combined with measured or simulated responses of ancient Greek theaters, future work
will examine the combined effect of mask and theatre acoustic properties. In addition, in
future work, measurements will be made for various elevation angles taking into account the
amphitheatric shape of the ancient theaters.

14

20

10

10

Magnitude (dB)

Magnitude (dB)

20

10

20

10

20
Wellfitted mask
Displaced mask

30
100

200

500

Wellfitted mask
Displaced mask
1000

2000

4000

8000

16000

30
100

200

Frequency (Hz)

500

1000

2000

4000

8000

16000

Frequency (Hz)

(a)

(b)

Figure 9: Effect of a small mask displacement (azimuth angle 180) for (a) on axis frequency
response and (b) binaural measurement (the left channel is shown)

APPENDIX A
The effect of mask alignment
The effect of mask alignment on the dummy-head was first investigated in order to assess
the potential variations in the measured responses due to such random factors. Note that
for the construction of the masks the dummy head dimensions were taken into account,
and purpose-built support elements were fitted inside the mask helmets in order to ensure
maximum stability (see Fig. 2 (c)). However it was found that for this type of (solid) mask,
a perfectly repeatable alignment to the head was practically impossible. Fig. 9 (a) presents
an example of the effect of a small random displacement of the mask A4 for an azimuth angle
of 180 . It can be seen that the frequency response of the displaced mask is significantly
different above 1500 Hz. The same variation applies also for the binaural (self-perception)
measurements, as is shown in Fig. 9 (b). Given that misalignment effects can overrule any
variations between different mask templates, in the analysis of the present study the mean of
the measurements between different mask templates was taken into account. Therefore, the
acoustic characteristics of the different mask prototypes were not individually examined in
detail, given that the acoustic effect of such construction details could not be isolated from
the random mask misalignment effects.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their corrections, helpful comments and constructive suggestions to improve this paper.

References
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[2] Aristotle. Poetics. Loeb Classical Library, 1995.
15

[3] M Foucault. Of other spaces, heterotopias. 1967.

[4] G.R.A.S. KEMAR Manikin with Mouth Simulator Type 45BM, 2010.
[5] Fuzzmeasure Pro 3 Audio and Acoustical measurement application, 2011.
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[7] J Pollux. Onomasticon, Ex Recensione Immanuelis Bekkeri. Nabu Press, 2010.
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