Atmospheric Effects On Electro

3Atmospheric Effects on Electro-optics
31. Basic Physics of Radiative Transfer

028. Electro-optical systems
029. Black-body radiation
030. Contrast
031. Contrast transmission
032. Reflected energy systems (other than visual)
033. Wavelength resolution-sensitivity relationships
32. Environmental Sensitivities of PGMs
034. Visual systems
035. Infrared systems
33. Target Acquisition Systems and Tactics
036. The classic target acquisition cycle (CTAC)
037. Air-to-ground missions
038. Launch envelope
34. Principles of Operation of PGMs
039. Three types of PGM systems
040. Employment modes
041. Employment tactics for PGMs
RECISION guided munitions and target acquisition systems represent revolutionary advances in
warfare. In Operation Desert Storm, the men and women of the United States Army, Navy, Air Force,
and Marines, as well as those of our coalition allies, demonstrated that we can now put ordnance
precisely on target any time of day or night. We can do this with maximum effectiveness and without
causing extensive collateral damage. Unlike our experience in Vietnam, we can now deny the enemy
the cover of night. The successful employment of these weapons is due in no small part to the hard
work, skill, and professionalism of forecasters and aerographers mates.
31. Basic Physics of Radiative Transfer

Electro-optical (EO) sensors are weather sensitive. To best take advantage of them, it is our
responsibility to let our customers know how these systems will function under different
meteorological conditions. Using our forecasting skill (and a desktop computer), we can provide our
customers with vital information that will help them determine which weapons can be employed
effectively and which will be impaired by environmental conditions. Such decisions may prove
crucial in combat situations. It is extremely important that you understand your customers mission
and tactics. You must know not only where the pilot will fly, but what weapons and tactics will be
used. Your job will be to forecast what a target scene will look like and from how far away an
aircrew will be able to identify its target. You must not only understand how weather affects the
aircraft, but how weather affects the weapons it carries.
Our ability to provide weather support to electro-optical systems must be based on an understanding
of the effects of the atmosphere on the propagation of electromagnetic energy. Approach the EO
forecasting problem as a three-step process. First we are concerned with the actual contrast between
targets and backgrounds, both in the visible spectrum and in the infrared. The next step is to forecast
the effects of the atmosphere on the image that the aircrew member sees at a distance from the target.
The third step, which we leave to the computer, is to account for the performance of the sensor being
employed. Once you cover all the significant ideas and details of radiative transfer in the atmosphere,
you will be fully prepared to apply this knowledge to tactical decision making.
Aircraft and munitions may be equipped with EO sensors that enable the pilot to find targets and put
bombs and missiles on those targets with amazing accuracy from great distances. An EO sensor
mounted on the aircraft is called a target acquisition system. If the EO sensor is mounted on the
bomb or missile itself, then that munition is called a precision guided munition (PGM). Either type
EO system may be designed to display an image of the target to the pilot, aviator,
bombardier/navigator (B/N), or weapon system officer (WSO), or it may be designed to detect
energy directly reflected by the target. Visual imaging systems depend on the contrast between
reflectivities of objects in the target scene. Far infrared (FIR) imaging systems depend on the contrast
between emitted thermal energy of the objects in the target scene. Systems designed to detect
reflected energy may be either 1.06 micrometers/microns ( m) near infrared (NIR) lasers or
millimeter/microwave radars. These systems depend on the target being designated by a laser or
illuminated with radar energy.
Electromagnetic radiation (EMR)
The energy that is detected by an EO system is electromagnetic (EM) energy or electromagnetic
radiation (EMR). Think of EMR in either of two ways. The first way is as coupled electric and
magnetic waves, propagating (transmitting) in the same direction and oriented at right angles to each
other.
You are probably already familiar with the visible portion of the EM spectrum. This is what you see
when you look at a rainbow. A wave may be characterized by its wavelength ( ) and where this
wavelength falls in the electromagnetic spectrum. Wavelengths are measured in micrometers ( m),
which is equal to one-millionth of a meter. The wavelengths of visible light range from 0.4 m at the
violet end to 0.74 m at the red end. Wavelengths shorter than those of violet light include the
ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays. EO systems do not use any wavelengths shorter than visible
wavelengths; however, they do take advantage of wavelengths longer than visible wavelengths.
These may include IR wavelengths from 8 to 12 m and millimeter/microwaves (about 1 to 10mm).
The EM spectrum is shown in figure 31. The middle figure shows the overall spectrum from
ultraviolet to microwave. The top figure shows colors and wavelengths of the visible portion and the
bottom figure shows wavelength cutoffs for major sections of the infrared spectrum. All EMR moves
at the same constant speed, the speed of light (c). If EMR of all different wavelengths moves at the
same speed, then the frequency ( ) of these waves must be inversely proportional to the wavelength
( = ). EMR with a long wavelength thus has a low frequency and vice versa. For example,
ultraviolet radiation (short wave) has a higher frequency than infrared (long wave). Generally,
visible, IR, and ultraviolet radiation are characterized by their wavelengths, while radar and radio
waves may be discussed either in terms of frequency or wavelength.
Figure 31. The electromagnetic spectrum.
The other way to think of EMR is as discrete parcels of energy called quanta or photons as in figure
32. The amount of energy contained in a single photon is directly proportional to the frequency; the
higher the frequency is, the greater the energy per photon will be. An ultraviolet photon is more
energetic than an infrared photon because its wavelength is shorter and its frequency is higher. The
principal advantage of thinking of EMR as parcels is that it is often much easier to envision particles
being scattered and absorbed in the atmosphere. How we think of EMR depends only on which is
more convenient. When we discuss the different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, we discuss
EMR in terms of waves. When we consider how constituents of the atmosphere interact with EMR, it
is easier to visualize EMR as parcels.
Figure 32. Think of EMR as a wave or as a discrete parcel of energy.
Black bodies
Any object that has a temperature above absolute zero (0 K or 273C) emits or radiates EMR. EO
systems may use this emitted energy to form an image of the target scene to detect it. IR systems use
the emitted energies of the targets and backgrounds themselves. Visual, or TV, systems use reflected
energy coming from the target/background pair that is emitted by some other object, usually the sun,
or by radar systems for finding targets. Energy may also be transferred by convection and
conduction, but radiated (emitted) and reflected energy is the only energy that is available to EO
sensors.
There are three laws or principles that describe the emission of EMR by an object. These are Plancks
law, the Stefan-Boltzmann law, and Wiens law. The object that these laws describe is called a black
body, which is a theoretical object that absorbs all the energy that falls upon it, regardless of its angle
of incidence or wavelength. No perfect black body exists, but we use it as a model for our targets and
backgrounds (although we slightly modify this model later). A black body must be in thermal
equilibrium with its environment so its temperature is constant. For this to be possible, a black body
must emit as much energy as it absorbs, otherwise its temperature would change. It is this emitted
energy that EO sensors detect. The amount of each wavelength of energy that a black body emits
depends only on its temperature and not on the wavelengths of energy it absorbs. If we have two
black bodies at the same temperature and one absorbs ultraviolet light while the other absorbs radio
waves, their emitted energies are identical because their temperatures are the same. The type of
energy absorbed by each black body may be different. The type of energy emitted is the same,
however, as long as their temperatures are the same.
Plancks law
Plancks law describes the amount of energy emitted by a black body at a specific temperature for
each wavelength of the EM spectrum. If we plot the amount of energy emitted at each wavelength on
a graph, we see a characteristic Planck curve, or energy spectrum, for each black body. The Planck
curves for black bodies at several different temperatures are shown in figure 33. Note that each
curve has the same distinct shape with a single peak, but that the location of this peak differs for each
object. Note also that the height of the curve (and the area underneath) is also greater for objects with
higher temperatures. The general shape of each curve is the same, but for hotter objects the curve is
higher and the area under it is greater. This illustrates the Stefan-Boltzmann law. Note also that the
wavelength of peak emitted energy is smaller for hotter objects. This illustrates Wiens law. There is
always a certain amount of energy given off at every wavelength for each object. It may be an
infinitesimally small amount, but some energy is emitted.
Figure 33. Energy spectra for four different objects at 300 , 325 , 350 , and 375 K
determined using Plancks law.
The Stefan-Boltzmann law

The Stefan-Boltzmann law relates the total amount of energy emitted at all wavelengths of the EM
spectrum to the temperature of the black body. This is equal to the area under each curve, which is
greater for hotter objects than colder. It is expressed mathematically by:
where is a constant. An important consequence of the Stefan-Boltzmann law is that small

differences in the temperatures of two black bodies result in large differences in the amount of
emitted energy. The table below lists the amount of emitted energies for three black-body objects at
300 K, 310 K, and 320 K. A change in temperature from 300 to 310 K is only a 3 percent change,
but the amount of emitted energy increases by 14 percent. Increasing the temperature from 300 to
320 K (7 percent) increases the amount of emitted energy by 29 percent. These relationships are all
due to the fourth-power relationship between temperature and radiated energy.
Temperature (K)
Emitted Energy (Watts/m2)
300
459
310
524
320
594
Wiens law
We have seen that the Planck curve has a distinct single peak. The location of this peak is related to
the temperature of the object; we can find it by using Wiens law. Wiens law is an inverse
relationship between the wavelength of peak emission and the black-bodys temperature:
where Max is the wavelength of maximum emitted energy. Electro-optical sensors are designed to
detect energy around the peaks of Planck curves for two reasons. First, the maximum energy for
activation of the sensor is the peak energy. The second reason is a bit more subtle. If two objects have
slightly different temperatures and their peaks are in the same region of the spectrum, then the
maximum contrast between the objects is found near the peaks rather than out on the "wings" of the
curve. If the sensor is designed to form an image of the target scene, then tune it to wavelengths close
to the peaks of most objects.
Visible systems use reflected light energy, primarily sunlight. The temperature of the sun is
approximately 6,000 K so Max is approximately 0.5 m. In figure 34, notice the wavelength of the
peak energy emission of a solar black body compared to the peak energy emission of a terrestrial
black body. This is in the blue portion of the visible spectrum.
Visible systems are generally used in the daytime, but night vision goggles and low-light-level TV
use sunlight that is reflected by the moon or scattered by the nighttime sky. IR sensors use the
thermal energy that is emitted from targets and backgrounds to produce an image of the target scene.
Climatological temperatures and the temperatures of man-made objects range from approximately
250 to 350 K. These correspond (roughly) to energy peaks ranging from 12 to 8 m, respectively,
which fall in far infrared portion of the spectrum. Laser and millimeter/microwave sensors do not
rely on black body sources of radiation, but on the reflection of artificially produced EMR. How
these systems produce their energy is beyond the scope of this course, however.
Figure 34. Typical black-body spectra.
To illustrate how these laws pertain to black bodies, lets consider a simple household examplean
electric stove element. With the heat (energy) setting on "Medium," the element glows deep red. If
we turn up the setting to "Medium High," the temperature goes up and the color changes to a reddishorange. Turning up the setting to "High" increases the temperature even more, and the color changes
to orange.
We can easily relate what occurs on the stove to the three radiation laws that we just discussed. It did
not matter whether we ran electricity through the element or whether we threw it in a fire; the
element emitted a certain amount of energy at each wavelength because of its temperature. This
illustrates Plancks law. The amount of energy absorbed by and emitted by the element and its
temperature is directly related (although we dont see a fourth-power relationship), which illustrates
the Stefan-Boltzmann law. The change in color from red (longer wavelength) to orange (shorter
wavelength) illustrates Wiens law.
We can use this familiar example to reassure ourselves that although black bodies are theoretical
objects, the theories that describe black bodies work very well for real objectsfrom stove burners
to roads, fields, and tanks.
030. Contrast
We may define three types of contrast. The actual contrast between two objects based solely on their
properties is called inherent contrast (Co). The contrast that a person or an EO sensor detects at some
distance x from the target scene is called apparent contrast (Co[x]). The smallest contrast that a
sensor or the human eye can detect is called the threshold contrast (Co[th]). For an EO sensor,
threshold contrast depends on the design of the sensor. For the human eye, threshold contrast is the
contrast where 50 percent of observers can detect a target against its background.
Visual contrast
For visual systems, contrast is defined as the difference in reflectivity, or albedo, between target and
background. Reflectivity is the ratio of the amount of energy at a specific wavelength that is reflected
by an object to the amount that is incident upon it. Albedo is the ratio of the amount of energy over a
band of wavelengths that is reflected by an object to the amount that is incident upon it.
There are two ways to define inherent visual contrast mathematically. The first is simply:
where Co is inherent contrast, RTarget is the reflectivity of the target, RBackground is the reflectivity of the
background, and RMaximum is the greater of the two. If we define contrast this way, then the contrast for
a black (R = 0) target on a white (R = 1) background is equal to 1. For a white target on a black
background, contrast is equal to +1. The absolute value of the contrast for either situation is 1; the
sign just tells whether the target is black and the background is white, or vice versa. If we define
contrast this way, then it does not matter whether the reflected light comes from the target or the
background. If the target and background are about the same size, then it does not matter, but if the
target is much smaller than the background, a better way of defining contrast is:
When we define contrast this way, it ranges from 1 (black target on white background) to + (white
target on a black background). Nothing is perfectly black or perfectly white, so Co can never be + ,
but this formula does suggest that white targets on black backgrounds should be easier to see. This
formula does take into account the difference between light coming from the target and light coming
from the background. It may be more useful to consider the signal-to-noise ratio of the target scene
rather than merely the contrast. Light coming from the target provides useful information (signal)
while light coming from the background provides useless information (noise). If all the light coming
from the target scene comes from the background, it gives no information about the target; its all
noise (but not as much noise as would come from a pure white background). If all the light comes
from the target (signal), then any energy that is detected by the sensor is from the target. It is
therefore much easier to find a white target on a black background than to find a black target on a
white background.
Types of reflection
There are two fundamental types of reflection. For a perfect, or specular, reflector, the angle of
incidence equals the angle of reflection (see fig. 35). Reflection from a single source is all in the
same direction only; reflected energy can be detected from only one viewing angle. This is the type
of reflection that you see in your rearview mirror. For a diffuse reflector, light is reflected in all
directions equally, but the energy is diffuse. Reflected light may be detected from all viewing angles.
Flat paints are diffuse reflectors.
Figure 35. A perfect reflector and a diffuse reflector.
Of course, no surface is 100 percent perfect or 100 percent diffuse, and the type of reflection can
change. Brand new shiny cars are closer to perfect reflectors, but as they get old, the paint fades and
reflection becomes more diffuse.
Infrared contrast
Infrared contrast is defined simply as a radiometric temperature difference between target and
background:
In this expression, T is the radiative or radiometric temperature rather than the physical temperature
of the object. The radiometric temperature represents the energy lost by radiation and is the
temperature an object would appear to have if it were a true black body. The radiometric temperature
of an object depends on a property of the material its made of called emissivity ( ). Emissivity is the
ratio of emitted radiation from an object to the emitted radiation from a black body at the same
frequency (or wavelength) and temperature.
Since, by definition, a black body emits all the energy it receives, there are no true black bodies, but
we can consider most objects as gray bodies. Later in this section, you see that all the energy
received by an object is either absorbed, reflected, or transmitted. If an object is transparent to the
energy, then the transmissivity is very high. If an object is opaque to the energy, then the
transmissivity is very low. Targets and backgrounds are opaque to the energy, so we assume that no
energy is transmitted. Gray bodies do not absorb all the energy that is incident upon them, but only
part of it. For example, brick and concrete emit over 90 percent of the energy they receive. On the
other hand, a polished steel object may emit less that 10 percent of the energy it receives.
A black body has an emissivity of 1.0 and a gray body has an emissivity of less than 1.0. By
Kirchoffs law, gray bodies emit as much energy as they absorb. Therefore we can modify the StefanBoltzmann law to account for this:
In this expression the emissivity ( ) is always 1, so the amount of energy emitted by a gray body is
less than that emitted by a black body. Remember that IR sensors detect the energy emitted by an
object rather than its temperature. To relate this energy to temperature, one can assume that the object
is a true black body, although the temperature of the object is its radiometric temperature. To
understand the difference between physical and radiometric temperature, consider the simple
example illustrated in figure 36.
Figure 36. Schematic illustration of the difference between radiometric
and physical temperature.
Object A is a black body ( = 1) with a temperature of 300 K. From a distance it appears to have a
temperature of 300 K (its radiometric temperature). Object B is a black body ( = 1) with a
temperature of 280 K. Likewise, it has a radiometric temperature of 280 K. Now consider object C.
Its physical temperature is 300 K, but it is a gray body with an emissivity of only 0.76. Because it is
not too efficient at emitting energy, it only emits the energy of a 280 K black bodyit has a
radiometric temperature of 280 K even though its physical temperature is 300 K. Objects A and B
are both black bodies, so each objects physical temperature is also its radiometric temperature.
Object A and C have the same physical temperature, but the radiometric temperatures of Objects B
and C are the same because B is a black body and C is a gray body.
The important conclusion here is that radiometric temperature of an object is always less than or
equal to its actual temperature. Emissivities of most materials are close to 1, but materials such as
polished metals, some sands, and calm water may have low emissivities and appear colder than they
actually are.
Reflectivity of IR
There is a second reason that materials with low emissivities may appear cold. All energy incident on
an object must either be absorbed, pass through the object (transmissivity), or be reflected by the
object. Mathematically:
Absorptivity + Transmissivity + Reflectivity = 1
Targets and backgrounds are usually opaque, so transmissivity = 0. Kirchoffs law tells us that
absorptivity equals emissivity, so if absorptivity (emissivity) is small, then reflectivity must be high,
or:
Emissivity + Reflectivity = 1
Objects with low emissivities and high reflectivities can appear very cold if they reflect a cold
background or the sky. This is true even if their physical temperatures are high. It is not uncommon
to see corrugated sheet metal buildings or certain types of sand showing up cold in IR sensors even
on the hottest summer days. The low emissivity of the sheet metal or sand means that the reflectivity
is high and not much energy is absorbed.
Thermal response
The temperature of an object varies over the course of a day. Objects heat up and cool off at different
rates, so contrasts between objects and backgrounds vary quite a bit in a 24-hour period.
The rate of heating or cooling of the material that an object is made of depends on three factors. The
first of these is the absorptivity of the material. This is the same absorptivity that weve been talking
about all alonga measure of how much energy is absorbed by the skin of an object. IR sensors
detect skin temperatures. Objects with high absorptivities heat up faster than objects with low
absorptivities, so daytime temperatures are higher for objects with high absorptivities. At night,
objects with high absorptivities also radiate heat more rapidly than objects with low absorptivities, so
nighttime temperatures arelower for objects with high absorptivities.
The second factor is thermal conductivity. This is a measure of how rapidly heat is transferred within
a material; in turn, this determines how rapidly heat is transferred from the surface of an object into
its interior. If an objects conductivity is low, more heat remains at its surface, so these objects
have higher daytime skin temperatures. At night, radiative cooling reduces surface temperature and
any heat stored by the object conducts to the surface slowly. The surface cools rapidly. Generally,
the lower the conductivity, the faster an object heats up or cools off.
The last factor is thermal capacity, which is a measure of how much heat an object can store.
Thermal capacity depends on the objects specific heat (energy required to raise a unit of mass by
1C) and the total mass of the object. Thermal capacity moderates diurnal heating and cooling
processes by acting as an internal heat source or reservoir. At night, stored heat conducts to the
surface and offsets heat loss due to radiative cooling. The lower the thermal capacity, the faster an
object heats up or cools off.
These three properties of matter vary independently to affect the thermal response of an object. For
example, if a layer of sand is reflective, its absorptivity is low. If its absorptivity is low, then so is its
emissivity. This tends to slow the thermal response of the sand. However, if the sand does not
conduct heat from the surface very fast or does not have the capacity to hold much heat, it tends to
have a rapid thermal response.
The properties of absorptivity, thermal conductivity, and thermal capacity work in concert with the
shape and size of an object to determine its thermal response. For example, if two objects are made
of the same material, then their absorptivities, conductivities, and specific heat are the same.
However, their size and shape also significantly affects the rate at which they heat and cool because
of the ratio of surface area to mass.
Objects gain or lose heat through their surfaces but store it throughout their mass. Therefore, the ratio
of surface area to mass profoundly influences the rate of thermal transfer for an object. To understand
how the surface to mass ratio of objects changes with size, consider the two cubes in figure 37. The
first one is a 1 kilogram (kg) mass that measures 1 meter on a side while the other is an 8kg mass that
measures 2 meters on a side. The volume of the first cube is 1 cubic meter and its surface area is 6
square meters, for a surface to mass ratio of 6:1. Since the two cubes are made of the same material,
the volume of the second cube is 8 cubic meters, while its surface area is 24 square meters, for a
surface to mass ratio of 3:1. The larger cube does not heat up or cool off as fast as the smaller cube
because its surface to mass ratio is only half as large. Smaller objects have a greater thermal response
only when everything else is equal.
Figure 37. Surface to mass ratio varies by size.
You must consider other factors. The shape of an object also affects its surface to mass ratio. For
example, one kilogram of a material in the shape of a cube like the one in figure 37 has less surface
area if the same mass of the material is shaped like a sphere as in figure 38. This can be shown by
tabulating the surface area of a one kilogram mass with a volume of 1 cubic meter. First calculate the
surface area of a cube to be 6 square meters and compare the surface area of the sphere at less than 5
square meters. Another example that demonstrates this is to use the one kilogram sphere and flatten it
out like a pizza. Notice that a pizza cooks much faster than a loaf of bread.
Figure 38. Surface to mass ratio varies by shape.

Extinction
Apparent contrast (Co[x]) is always less than inherent contrast (Co). As EMR travels from the target
scene to the sensor, some of the photons coming from the target (target light) are scattered and others
are absorbed by the constituents of the air. Both of these processes remove target image photons
(signal) from their path to the sensor and so degrade the image that the sensor sees. Both processes
apply to all wavelengths; however, for visible wavelengths, scattering is the predominant cause of
extinction, while for IR wavelengths, absorption predominates.
Scattering of visible wavelengths
Scattering is defined as the redirection of photons by molecules, aerosols, or other particles in the air.
The type of scattering is determined by the size parameter
, where r is the radius of the
scattering particle and is the wavelength of the EMR being scattered. We can determine the
scattering regime from figure 39. The significant scattering regimes are Rayleigh (dark gray), Mie
(light gray) and geometric (medium gray). The wavelength of EMR is on the horizontal axis and the
size of the scattered is on the vertical axis. We can determine the type of scattering that a photon
experiences from the intersection of these values in the diagram.
Figure 39. Size parameter
as a function of the radius of the atmospheric
scattered (r) and the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation ( ).
Rayleigh scattering
For Rayleigh, or molecular, scattering to occur, the wavelength of the scattered EMR is much greater
than the particle doing the scattering, so X < 1. Rayleigh scattering is done by oxygen (O 2), nitrogen
(N2) water (H2O) vapor, and other molecules. Rayleigh scattering is isotropic; that is, the light is
scattered in all directions equally as in figure 310. Rayleigh scattering also depends on wavelength.
Shorter wavelengths (blues) are scattered more than longer wavelengths (reds). This is one reason
that the sky appears blue. Blue photons coming from the sun are scattered many more times than red
photons and are, therefore, more widely distributed across the sky. As a rule of thumb, Rayleigh
scattering is the only significant type of scattering that occurs when the visibility is greater than 7
miles. There is always a certain amount of Rayleigh scattering between any target and sensor, but this
type of scattering is not nearly as much of a problem as the two other types we discuss next.
Figure 310. Scattering patterns for Mie, Rayleigh, and Geometric scattering.
Mie scattering
Mie scattering is done by aerosols, particulates, and haze droplets. The size of the aerosol scatterer is
approximately the same size as wavelength of light (give or take a factor of ten), so X is about 1 (0.1
10). Unlike Rayleigh scattering, Mie scattering is anisotropic (not isotropic). Most light that is Mie
scattered is scattered in the forward direction as in figure 310. Mie scattering is independent of
wavelength; all wavelengths are scattered equally. A hazy day offers a good example of Mie
scattering. Visibility is reduced in haze so the scattering has a whitish or grayish appearance. When
the relative humidity is greater than roughly 75 percent, aerosols (haze) grow into the size range for
Mie scattering. As a rule of thumb, Mie scattering is the type of scattering that reduces visibilities
below the criterion for unrestricted visibility (< 7 miles).
Geometric scattering
Geometric scattering is scattering by cloud or fog droplets and precipitation. In geometric scattering,
the radius of the droplet is much larger than the wavelength (X >> 1). This type of scattering is also
anisotropic, but with most light scattered in the backward direction as shown in figure 310. It is also
independent of wavelength. The worst contrast degradation is caused by geometric scattering.
Geometric scattering becomes significant when the visibility is less than 3 miles. Because geometric
scattering is so detrimental, precision-guided munitions (PGM) and target acquisition systems require
a cloud-free line of sight (CFLOS). A familiar example of geometric scattering is the effect that
turning on your high beams on a foggy night has on your ability to see.
Absorption of infrared wavelengths
Although scattering of IR wavelengths does occur, the more significant cause of infrared contrast
degradation is absorption. Beers law describes the relationship between distance and contrast
transmission, but now there is only a small contribution to the extinction coefficient Tot from
scattering. Airlight is also not significant at IR wavelengths. Most of the absorption is done by water
vapor and droplets. The term mol abs consists primarily of water vapor absorption. If we look at the
absorption of EMR across the EM spectrum, we see that there are two major "windows" in the
infrared where water vapor absorption is minimal. These occur at 3.5 to 4.2 m and at 8.5 to 13.0 m
and are shown in figure 311.
Figure 311. Major absorption bands of atmospheric gases in the region

from 0.5 m to 25 m.
Low transmittance values indicate strong absorption. Note the existence of little or no absorption in
the region from 3.5 to 4.2 m and the region from 8.5 to 13 m. These two regions are the so-called
atmospheric windows. Fortunately, the second window occurs in the range where Wiens law tells us
that the peaks of interest for most targets and backgrounds should occur. If the absolute humidity (the
total mass of water vapor molecules in a volume of air, measured by dew point) is high, water vapor
absorption becomes significant; it partially "closes" the window to the IR sensor. The term aer
absdepends on relative humidity and the aerosol type. When the relative humidity is greater than
roughly 90 percent, significantly large haze forms that can significantly degrade IR contrast
transmission. The type of aerosol determines the growth rate of haze. As for visual systems, the
term precip is responsible for the greatest degree of contrast degradation. In this case, extinction is
due to absorption by precipitation droplets rather than by scattering.
Beers law
To understand the relationship between distance and visibility, consider this simple example. Assume
that 100 photons are emitted or reflected by a target in the direction of the sensor. Now assume that a
certain percentage of photons is scattered or absorbed in each kilometer of the atmosphere that the
photons travel through. For example, if this percentage is 10 percent, then at 1km only 90 photons
are left. At 2km, 81 remain (90 percent of 90). At 3km, we have 73 photons and at 4km there remain
only 66. What we just described is an exponential decrease of energy with distance from the target
scene. This relationship is known as Beers law, and is expressed mathematically as:
where Tot , the total extinction coefficient, is expressed as the sum of individual extinction
coefficients for molecular scattering, molecular absorption, aerosol scattering, aerosol absorption,
and precipitation (e is a constant equal to approximately 2.718):
This relationship applies to both visible and IR wavelengths, but not all the five terms are always
significant. In this expression, the factor e- x represents the transmissivity.
Contrast may be either visible or IR contrast. In the example (fig. 312), the inherent contrast, 10,
occurs at a distance of 0km. At 4km, the apparent contrast is 4, so the transmissivity at 4km is 0.4 or
40 percent (4/10). An arbitrary value of 2 has been set for the threshold contrast. At just over 7km,
the apparent contrast is equal to the threshold contrast. This is the maximum possible lock-on or
acquisition range; beyond this, there is not enough apparent contrast to make the sensor active. To
find apparent contrast, just go some distance along the horizontal axis and then read the
corresponding value for contrast along the vertical axis. Threshold contrast is shown as a horizontal
line that intersects the vertical axis at the threshold contrast value. Where this line crosses the
exponential curve gives the maximum lock-on or acquisition range (depending on the type of
sensor). Beyond this point, lock-on or acquisition is impossible.
Figure 312. An example of Beers law.
Beers law accounts for the amount of image light (signal) that is scattered or absorbed between the
target scene and the sensor. This light is lost from the path. There is a second way that visible
contrast is degraded. If nonimage light (noise), such as sunlight, shines on the path, this light may be
scattered into the sensor. Any type of scattering may cause sunlight to be scattered into the path
between the object and the sensor. The light that is scattered into the sensor is called airlight or path
radiance. A familiar example of airlight is the blueness of objects, such as mountains, in the distance.
The farther away the mountains are, the bluer they appear. This type of airlight is the result of
Rayleigh scattering, hence the blue color.
The whiteness of haze is also due to airlight. Sunlight gets (Mie) scattered from haze particle to haze
particle until it is eventually scattered into your eye. Airlight can be as significant a cause of contrast
degradation as extinction. The degree of contrast degradation depends on the distance between the
target and sensor.
Laser systems
Laser systems cannot be used without a CFLOS. The wavelength of tactical lasers is 1.06 m, which,
in the NIR, is very close to the visible spectrum. Not surprisingly, lasers are subject to the same types
of scattering that impair visible systems. Besides these, there are refractive effects that can seriously
degrade beam propagation.
The first of these is beam scintillation. This is caused by microscale turbulent eddies much smaller
than the beam width. Scintillation causes fluctuations of energy intensity within the cross section of
the beam, but does not bend the beam from a straight line of sight or alter the width of the beam.
The second refractive effect is beam spread. This occurs when the microscale eddies are smaller than,
or about the same size as, beam width. Spread increases the cross-sectional area of the beam and
decreases the intensity of its energy.
The third effect is beam wander. This is caused by microscale eddies larger than the beam width.
Wander causes the beam to deviate from a straight line path and makes aiming more difficult. All
three of these can occur simultaneously. The twinkling of stars is a result of these refractive effects.
Radar systems
Radar (millimeter/microwave) systems are mainly affected by precipitation and large convective
cloud droplets. These systems operate at approximately the same wavelengths as weather radar.
There are two key relationships that describe the effectiveness of using a particular wavelength of
EMR to image a target scene. As wavelength increases, resolution decreases. Longer wavelengths
give poorer resolution than shorter wavelengths. As a forecaster, you are aware that the resolution of
a geostationary IR satellite image is 7km, while the resolution of a visible image can be 1km.
Millimeter/microwave sensors designed for imaging have the poorest resolution of all. On the other
hand, as wavelength increases, weather sensitivity decreases. The resolution may not be as good, but
using a longer wavelength allows pilots to operate under weather conditions that were formerly
restrictive.
This text material discusses the basic physics of radiative transfer in the atmosphere, including
contrast in both visible and infrared wavelengths, black-body theory, and electromagnetic energy
propagation. Plancks law gives the energy spectrum for a black body, the Stefan-Boltzmann law
gives the total energy, and Wiens law gives the wavelength of peak energy. Important relations
between wavelength, resolution, and weather sensitivity are: (1) as wavelength increases, resolution
decreases, and (2) as wavelength increases, weather sensitivity decreases.
The law of conservation of energy applies to a beam of radiation propagating between two points in
the atmosphere. If we denote the origin as Point A and the receiver as Point B (see fig. 313), then
the energy arriving at Point B is the sum of the energy transmitted to Point B and the energy reflected
into the beam (path radiance) to Point B.
Figure 313. Components of EM radiation.
The two components of extinction are absorption and scattering. Scattering is more important in
visible wavelengths while absorption is more important in IR. Extinction of IR is explained by the
absorption terms in the extinction coefficient in Beers law. In visible wavelengths, extinction due to
scattering is described by Beers law.
Airlight, or path radiance, is as important in visible contrast degradation as extinction. Visible
contrast is defined as a difference in reflectivities or albedos, while IR contrast is defined as a
difference in radiometric temperature. Contrasts are an important idea for understanding electrooptical systems. Figure 314 helps to describe the types of contrasts.
1.
2.
3.
Inherent contrast is the actual contrast between the target and the background as if viewed
from the target itself.
Apparent contrast is the resulting contrast as viewed from the sensor.
Threshold contrast is the amount of contrast needed in order for the sensor to distinguish
between the target and the background.
Figure 314. Type of contrast.
SelfTestQuestions
After you complete these questions, you may check your answers at the end of the unit.

1. Define a target acquisition system.
2. Define precision guided munition.
3. How do visual and far infrared imaging systems depend on contrast in a target scene?
1. Explain how EMR frequency is related to EMR wavelength.
2.
What are the only energies available to EO sensors?

3. Define Plancks law.
4. Define the Stefan-Boltzmann law.
5. Define Wiens law.
030. Contrast
1. What are the three types of contrasts and their definitions?
2.
Using figure 315, what is the temperature difference ( T) of the inherent contrast?
Figure 315. Lesson 030, self-test question 2.
3. Two aircraft, side by side, are approaching the same target with similar, but not identical, thermal
imaging sensors. Aircraft A detects the target at 5.8nm, while aircraft B does not detect the target
until it is 4.3nm away. What, then, can be said about the threshold contrasts of each aircraft?
4. What are the two fundamental types of reflection and their definitions?
5. On what does the rate of heating or cooling of the material that an object is made of depend?
1. Why is the sky blue?
2. Give an example of geometric scattering and how it occurs.
3. Illustrate how Beers law describes an exponential decrease of energy with distance from the target
scene using 8 percent loss of photons per kilometer mile.
4. Using figure 315 and given a constant threshold contrast of 1.5 K, what is the maximum lock-on
range for this electro-optical system?
1. What are the refractive effects that can seriously degrade beam propagation? Explain the cause of
each.
1. Explain the relationship between wavelength, resolution, and weather sensitivity.
32. Environmental Sensitivities of PGMs

Understanding the effects of the real-world weather on EO systems is based on the radiative transfer
physics that we discussed earlier. We can now use this information to determine some of the effects
of the atmosphere on the inherent and apparent contrasts of targets and backgrounds on the images
acquired by visual and infrared sensors. With experience, we may develop rules of thumb that make
our jobs as forecasters easier. These rules may be general and apply anywhere, or they may be
specific to our location and our customers mission. It is up to you to develop the latter for your
customers missions.
The weather parameters that drive the performance of electro-optical systems are sensitive to the
wavelength. The table below illustrates the general relationships between the operational wavelength
and the propagation medium. However, it is important to determine just which parameters have the
most significant impact on the wavelengths of interest.
WAVELENGTH
VISIBLE
NEAR IR
CATEGORIES
0.4 m
0.74 m
0.74 m
2 m
MIDDLE
IR
2 m
6m
FAR IR
FAR-FAR IR
MILLIMETER
MICROWAVE
6 m 15m
15 m
0.1mm
0.1mm1cm
1cm10cm
RESOLUTION
USUALLY DECREASES WITH LONGER WAVELENGTH
WEATHER
SENSITIVITY
GENERALLY DECREASES WITH LONGER WAVELENGTH
034. Visual systems

Inherent visible contrast
The environment affects inherent visible contrast chiefly by affecting the amount of illumination that
a target receives. Illumination can be affected by a number of factors, including cloud cover, sun
angle, and precipitation. Overcast clouds reduce the illumination of the target scene. Partly or mostly
cloudy conditions can cause the illumination of the target scene to vary rapidly, depending on the
amount of clouds present and their speed.
Sun angle has the most direct effect on illumination. It varies with the time of day, the day of the
year, and the location (latitude and longitude) of the target. Two factors control the affect of sun
angle. One is the angle of incidence as depicted in figure 316. The angle of incidence is measured
between the ray of energy and a perpendicular at the point of incidence. The greater the angle of
incidence, the less energy is received per square unit of area.
Figure 316. Angle of incidence.
The other factor is the depth of the atmosphere through which the suns energy travels, illustrated in
figure 317. This is also a function of the angle of incidence and the latitude. The atmosphere is
thicker near the equator, but as the angle of incidence increases, so does the effect of the slant-range
path of the energy through the atmosphere.
Figure 317. The greater the angle of incidence, the more atmosphere
the energy travels through.
Fortunately, this environmental effect is 100 percent predictable. The sun always rises in the east and
sets in the west, traveling through the south in the afternoon in the Northern Hemisphere north of the
tropics. The sun rises north of east and sets north of west in the summer and rises south of east and
sets south of west in the winter. Solar elevation angles are, therefore, much higher in the summertime
than in the wintertime (for any given hour of the day) and are also greater as you go closer to the
tropics.
Lunar angles are also easily computed on a small computer with a simple program. Sun and moon
angles determine not only the amount of illumination received by a target, but also determine shadow
length. Precipitation may also affect the inherent contrast by affecting the reflectivities of materials.
Rain may cause changes in the reflectivities of painted surfaces, particularly by making dull or flat
paints appear shinier. Rain may also cause the reflectivities of sands and soils to decrease, making
them darker. Snow, if it is deep enough, can severely reduce contrast by covering the target and
background or make dark objects stand out conspicuously if the ground is covered and the targets are
not. Camouflage and smoke are deliberately used to reduce contrast as well as to break up regular
patterns.
Apparent visible contrast
WEATHER
PARAMETERS
VISIBLE AND
NEAR IR
SHORT-WAVE IR
MID-WAVE IR
LONG-WAVE IR
MILLIMETER
MICROWAVE
Low visibility
Severe
Moderate
Low
Low
None
Rain/snow
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate/low
High humidity
Low
Low
Moderate
Moderate
Low/none
Fog/cloud
Severe
Severe
Moderate/ severe
Moderate/ severe
Moderate/low
Fog/oil/smoke
Severe
Moderate
Low
Low
None
Phosphorus/ dust
Severe
Moderate/ severe
Moderate
Moderate
Low/none
Weather conditions affect contrast transmission more than they do inherent contrast. If clouds are
present in any amount between the target and sensor, they block the view entirely. Visual systems,
therefore, require a CFLOS. As indicated in the table above, the natural visibility restrictions, such as
fog, haze, precipitation, and dust, degrade target acquisition and lock-on directly by reducing
visibility. The single most important parameter in determining lock-on and acquisition ranges is
visibility. In the battlefield environment, there are restrictions to visibility besides those that occur
naturally. Obscurants such as smoke may be used to deliberately shield moving targets from sight.
Battlefield-induced contaminants (BIC) such as smoke from burning targets and dust raised by bomb
impacts also obscure the target scene. These conditions may change rapidly and be difficult to
forecast accurately, even with the most current intelligence information.
It is easy to understand the types of effects that visibility restrictions have on target acquisitionafter
all, your eyes are EO sensors that operate in the visible portion of the spectrum.
Inherent thermal contrast
There are many more environmental effects on inherent thermal contrast than there are on inherent
visible contrast. Vehicular IR targets are self-heated; they supply their own EMR. The operating
condition of the target (i.e., whether it is off, idling, or exercised) has a great effect on the amount of
energy it emits and, therefore, the contrast. If the target is heated only by the sun (passively heated)
or other natural sources of energy, its contrast with the background depends on the differences in the
absorptivity, thermal conductivity, and thermal capacity of the target and background. Self-heated
targets also receive passive heating; both must be taken into account to determine their temperatures.
Precipitation
Rain and snow equalize the temperatures of passively heated objects and their backgrounds and
reduce thermal contrast. As the precipitation covers the targets and backgrounds, conduction between
target and background materials and the precipitation causes all temperatures to become
approximately the same. Self-heated targets, however, stand out against homogeneous backgrounds.
Conductive heat transfer is not the only effect that precipitation has, however. The uneven
evaporation (and evaporative cooling) of rain and the melting of snow can cause an increase in
thermal complexity (number of objects that may be mistaken for target). The more mottled a target
scene is, the closer an aircraft must get to sort out targets and backgrounds. The concept of scene
complexity is demonstrated in figure 318.
Figure 318. Scene complexity.
Recent precipitation is as important as present precipitation in determining thermal contrast. It can

obliterate the thermal contrast of passively heated targets and backgrounds and enhance the contrast
for self-heated targets. The thermal responses of objects determine how quickly thermal contrast is
restored once the precipitation ends. For this reason, be sure to consider the recent weather in the
target area when you prepare an EO forecast rather than just the forecast conditions for the time-ontarget (TOT).
Clouds
Clouds reduce insolation to passively heated objects and, therefore, reduce the thermal contrast
between passively heated targets and backgrounds. Backgrounds appear more homogeneous (less
complex) but passively heated targets blend in with them. As with precipitation, self-heated targets
appear warm against a homogeneous background. Clouds also reduce the net amount of radiative
cooling of targets and backgrounds at night, thereby reducing the thermal contrast of passively heated
objects. The temperatures of exercised self-heated targets are fairly uniform throughout the day, so
these appear warm against cooler backgrounds at night. Thicker low and middle clouds reduce
thermal contrast more than thinner high clouds. Also, the greater the extent of the cloud, the lesser
the insolation and radiative cooling will be. Scattered clouds have very little effect, while the effect
of broken or overcast clouds may be quite significant.
Wind
Wind increases the amount of heat lost from all objects and reduces contrast for all target scenes. In
other words, the greater the wind speed is, the less the thermal differences between targets and
backgrounds will be. The degree to which wind cools a target varies the most for low wind speeds,
generally less than 10 knots. It is therefore critical to forecast wind speed with the highest possible
degree of accuracy when wind speeds are low. An 8-knot wind cools a target much more than a 4knot wind, but a 50-knot wind speed does not have much more effect than a 20-knot wind. Although
the effect is not as pronounced at generally higher wind speeds, getting the wind speed forecast
correct is essential.
Crossover
Passively heated objects heat up and cool off at different rates and by different amounts over the
course of the day. An object with a rapid thermal response is warmer than an object with slow
thermal response in the late morning and afternoon. It is also cooler than an object with slow thermal
response in the predawn hours. If a target is warmer than its background during the day and cooler
than its background at night, then there must be two times during the day when their temperatures are
the same, as shown in figure 319. The temperature of the passively heated target is represented by
the dashed curve. These times are called crossover times and occur just after dawn and usually near
sunset. These are the worst times of the day for using IR systems. For exercised self-heated targets,
crossover occurs only on very hot days on certain backgrounds, such as desert sands and asphalt
roads. On very hot days, these backgrounds may heat up to the same temperature as the self-heated
target and make IR systems difficult to use. In this situation, crossover may occur only in the
afternoon when target and background temperatures are the same. Targets and backgrounds may stay
"crossed-over" for the entire afternoon.
Figure 319. Thermal crossover.
Thermal crossover is a function of viewing direction. For example, consider a tank that has not been
exercised for several days. The top graph in figure 320 shows the daytime temperature curve for
each side of the tank and the grass background. The bottom graph shows the temperature difference
between each side and the background. As you can see, whether a target is hotter or colder than the
background depends on both the time of day and the viewing angle.
Apparent thermal contrast
Thermal contrast transmission is affected mostly by the presence of water in the air, either in vapor or
droplet form. The most severe restrictions on contrast transmission are due to precipitation. Rain,
snow, and other forms of precipitation cause severe attenuation of target/background contrast
transmission due to absorption by droplets. Similarly, clouds severely attenuate contrast transmission.
High absolute humidities (high dew points) restrict thermal contrast transmission by water vapor
absorption. Lithometeors, such as dust and haze, have little effect in dry air; however, when the
relative humidity increases to about 90 percent or higher, significantly large haze droplets can form
that impair apparent contrast to the same extent as fog and rain droplets.
Figure 320. Thermal crossover of a tank against a grassy background.
Prevailing meteorological conditions, like those shown in figure 321, can have significant effects on
how objects appear to an EO sensor. These effects may be detrimental or beneficial. It is therefore
critical that you not only accurately forecast parameters, but that you know which affect the type of
sensor that you are preparing your forecast for and which do not. Always concentrate your
forecasting effort on those factors that have the greatest effect. Weather affects not only contrast
transmission, but inherent contrast as well. Threshold contrast is unaffected by the weather
conditions, except for ablation. Ablation is atmospheric deterioration of the lens surface of a
weapons sensors.
Figure 321. Weather that affects electro-optical systems.
SelfTestQuestions
034. Visual systems

1. What are the two factors that control the effect of the suns angle on illumination?
2. Explain some of the restrictions to visibility in a battlefield environment and how they can be
accurately forecasted?
1. If a target is heated only by the sun, on what does its background contrast depend?
2. Explain how precipitation affects the temperature of passively heated objects and their
backgrounds and of self-heated targets.
3. How does wind affect a target scene?
4.
When is the worst time of day for using an IR system? Why?

5. What are the causes of the most severe restrictions on contrast transmission and how?
33. Target Acquisition Systems and Tactics

When a smart weapon system is designed, the first question answered is, "What role will the system
perform on the battlefield? This role is to support the doctrine of the US Air Force and US Marine
Corps for air-to-ground missions. In order to assess the impact of weather on the EO systems, it is
necessary to understand the contribution that the EO system gives to the mission. This section briefly
presents these concepts to provide a basis for greater understanding to be gained through working
with the pilots that fly the missions.
Before we discuss some of the high-tech equipment available for aircrews to acquire and engage
targets, we should discuss how a pilot or aviator acquires a target. Actually, the steps we describe
apply to any situation in which someone is acquiring an object, whether it is a pilot or an aviator
attacking an enemy communications facility or you looking for a parking space at the airport. Lets
consider the latter example, then well see that the steps that aircrews go through are quite similar.
The first thing that you must do when you get to the airport is find the parking garage. Once youve
done that your work really beginsfinding an empty space. After a few minutes, youve acquired
your targetyouve found a spot. Now you have to determine your approach. Is it straight in or
angle parking? Do you have to parallel park? Once you determine the orientation of the space, you
have to make sure that it is okay to park there. Is the space reserved or marked with a handicapped
sign? If its okay to park there, then the last thing you might do before you turn off the engine is to
note exactly where you parked; that is, which floor, section, and space number. Without realizing it,
you have just executed the classic target acquisition cycle, or CTAC.
CTAC is a five-step process that aircrews use to acquire and destroy targets. It includes the following
phases: target area detection (finding the garage), target detection (finding a parking space), target
orientation (angled, straight-in, or parallel), target recognition (reserved or handicapped parking), and
target identification (floor, section, space). Now lets consider each phase of the CTAC (depicted in
fig. 322) as it applies to tactical situations.
Figure 322. Illustration of the classic target acquisition cycle (CTAC).
Phase Itarget area detection

There are many resources available to help the pilot or aviator detect the target area. Before the
mission, they may have access to photographic intelligence. They may be in contact with forward air
controllers (FAC) or tactical air control parties (TACP) on the ground or with airborne FACs in
aircraft such as the OA10A Thunderbolt II or OV10D Bronco. Aircrews might also be in contact
with airborne command, control, and communications (ABCCC) EC130 aircraft for taskings.
Besides FACs and ABCCC, pilots assigned to attack specific hardened targets have their route of
flight planned to the last detail. To make sure they adhere to the plan, they may use many navigation
aids. These may include some of the target acquisition systems we discuss, terrain following radar,
and inertial navigation.
The latest development in providing support to the air-to-ground mission is the E8A JSTARS (Joint
Surveillance Target Attack Radar System). This is a modified EC135 with a sideways looking radar
that provides up-to-date information on ground targets directly to aircrews. It is the air-to-ground
equivalent of the E3A Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS).
Phase IItarget detection
Once the pilot or aviator enters the target area, that individual must find either a specific target or a
suitable target of opportunity, depending on a number of factors. The first of these is the target-tobackground contrast, which can be a thermal or visual brightness contrast. This is something that you
will be able to forecast. The second factor is the size of the target. Obviously, bigger targets are easier
to find than smaller targets. The next factor is the size of the target area that the pilot must scan. If the
battle area is extensive, a pilot must spend more time finding a suitable target. The amount of time
available to scan the target area also affects the pilots success in detecting the target. Another factor
is the motion of the target, moving targets being easier to detect.
A successful attack depends on more than just dropping a bomb or firing a missile. It depends on
coordination, skillful maneuvering, avoidance of air defenses, and communication. The degree of
task saturation is, therefore, also a major factor in target detection. Sensor sensitivity, whether it is a
sophisticated piece of EO equipment or the human eye, also affects target detection.
Finally, we must consider the existing weather. Precipitation and other obstructions to visibility make
it more difficult to acquire targets. All these factors are critical for mission success. Some of them,
such as contrast and existing weather, are predictable and some are not. Even with the most accurate
tactical decision aid, if the pilot is not looking in the right direction, the target will not be hit.
Phase IIItarget orientation and pattern recognition
After the pilot or aviator finds the target, that individual must then recognize potential targets and
determine their orientation. Determining the orientation of a high value or hardened target is fairly
easy. With clear intelligence photos, the aircrew has some idea of what the target looks like before
they get to the area. Fixed and hardened targets are regularly shaped and stand out against
backgrounds of natural objects like hills and trees. Given the exact location of these fixed targets, the
aircrew knows exactly where to look as they approach the area. Vehicular targets are more
challenging because their orientations and operating states change frequently. Their movement may
reveal orientations as well as their locations.
Phase IVtarget recognition
After the pilot determines the orientation of the target, that person can classify the type of target. For
example, instead of identifying a potential target as either a building or a vehicle, the pilot is able to
determine that it is a hardened aircraft shelter or a tank.
Phase Vtarget identification
The final stage of the CTAC is to determine the specific target. By this stage, the pilot can determine
that the specific target that is about to be attacked is a specific hardened aircraft shelter (e.g., the third
one on the left on taxiway D) or a specific type of tank (e.g., a T80). The pilot can distinguish friend
from foe.
The CTAC may occur within seconds and phases may occur simultaneously. If the pilot adheres to all
five phases, that individual may then bring back valuable bomb damage assessment information that
makes future taskings more effective.
Aircrews receive their taskings (or "frags") via a document known as an air tasking order (ATO). The
ATO is prepared daily at the tactical air control center (TACC) and is issued for all sorties flown in
the theater of operations. The ATO specifies the target, time on target (TOT), and weapons load for
each aircraft.
According to US Air Force doctrine, the three fundamental functions of tactical air power are close
air support, air superiority, and air interdiction. In US Marine Corps doctrine, six functions of
aviation are defined, two of which include the three primary functions of tactical air power as defined
by the Air Force. Offensive antiair warfare (OAAW) is equivalent to air superiority, while offensive
air support(OAS) includes both air interdiction and close air support missions (as well as armed
reconnaissance). These are doctrinal distinctions; specific types of missions and their ultimate
objectives are essentially the same for all three branches and are based on the target. Tactical decision
aids may be required for any of these types of missions. To provide the best possible support to your
customer, it is important to understand the types of missions that your customer is tasked to perform
in wartime and for which they train in peacetime. Some of these different types of air-to-surface
missions include: close air support, air interdiction, suppression of enemy air defenses, and offensive
counter air.
Close air support (CAS)
CAS is support of friendly ground forces in close proximity to, or engaged with, enemy forces along
the forward edge of the battle area (FEBA). In a CAS mission, the pilot must adhere to CTAC before
releasing weapons. Typical targets include vehicles and personnel. CAS missions are typically flown
by the A10 Warthog, F16 Fighting Falcon, F/A18 Hornet, AV8B Harrier II, and AH64 Apache.
CAS missions may be planned or flown on an alert basis.
Besides CAS, the Marine Corps doctrine describes close-in fire support (CIFS). CIFS is unique to
attack helicopters such as the AH1W SuperCobra. CAS/CIFS is one of the two major categories of
OAS.
Air interdiction (AI)
AI strikes are against enemy targets far behind the FEBA or the forward line of own troops (FLOT).
In an AI mission, a pilot may only have to adhere to Phases I IV of the CTAC if target recognition is
essential and only if nothing else in the area is protected by the law of armed conflict (LOAC). These
protected elements include, but are not limited to, hospitals, civilian residential areas, hotels, or
religious and cultural structures, such as churches, mosques, temples, or shrines. The pilot may also
have to adhere to all five phases of the CTAC if the munition must hit a specific building or section
of building. AI missions may be flown by the F/A18 and A6E Intruder, F117 (stealth), F15E
Strike Eagle, F16, and F111F.
Interdiction of lines of supply and communication to the FEBA and strikes against enemy troops that
are about to be engaged is called battlefield air interdiction or BAI. In the Marine Corps doctrine, AI
is one type of deep-air support, which is the other major category of OAS.
Suppression of enemy air defenses (SEAD)
SEAD missions are strikes against air defenses, including antiaircraft artillery (AAA), surface-to-air
missile (SAM) batteries, and ground control intercept (GCI) radar. In many SEAD missions,
antiradiation missiles may be employed by F4G Wild Weasels and EA6B Prowlers. The CTAC is
not necessarily adhered to as the target is identified when enemy radar is activated. Alternatively,
more conventional munitions or other types of PGMs may be employed. SEAD is a category of
OAAW.
Offensive counter air (OCA)
OCA missions are strikes against enemy airfields, including aircraft on the ground, hardened shelters,
and control and support facilities. Adherence to the CTAC is not necessary for this type of mission.
OCA strikes are flown by F111Fs, F15Es, and F/A18s. In the Marine Corps and Navy doctrine,
these types of missions are generally referred to as Strike missions, or as "preemptive measures"
under OAAW.
To launch a bomb or missile safely and effectively, aircrews must consider the launch envelopes of
their weapons. The launch envelope is merely the range of altitudes and distances within which the
weapon can effectively reach the target without exposing the aircraft to enemy air defenses. The
inner edge is determined by the range of enemy air defenses. Obviously, you want to stay out of their
range. The upper edge is determined by cloud base, which determines not only the ceiling of the
aircraft, but also the altitude to which a bomb or missile may be lofted or tossed. The outer edge is
determined by the lesser of the range of munition or the visibility, lock-on range, or detection range
of the weapon itself. The aircraft must be close enough to detect, or lock on to, the target and within
the range of the weapon. These components of the launch envelope are shown in figure 323.
Figure 323. The launch envelope and safe launch zone.
SelfTestQuestions

1. What are the five phases of CTAC?
2.
Match each phase of the CTAC in column B with its description in column A. Items in column
B may be used more than once.
Column A
Column B
_____ 1. The first factor to consider is the targetto-background contrast.
a. Target detection.
b. Target identification.
_____ 2. During this phase, the pilot can

distinguish friend from foe.
c. Target recognition.
_____ 3. Aircrews are in contact with Airborne

Command, Control, and Communications
(ABCCC) EC130 aircraft for their taskings.
d. Target area detection.

e. Target orientation and
pattern recognition.
_____ 4. During this phase, the size of the target

area that must be scanned is a factor.
_____ 5. After the pilot or aviator has found the
target, that individual must then recognize
potential targets and determine their orientation.
_____ 6. After the pilot determines the orientation
of the target, that person classifies the type of
target.
_____ 7. The aviators may use many navigation
aids to make sure they adhere to the plan.

1. List and describe the four types of Air Force air-to-ground missions.
1. Define and describe the limits of the launch envelope.
34. Principles of Operation of PGMs

Precision-guided munitions are missiles, bombs, or artillery shells that are equipped with a terminal
guidance system. They may be categorized according to their guidance sensor types as in figure 3
24. This section deals with the electro-optical and radar guidance types because environmental
support is more critical for them than for inertial guidance systems. While radar guidance systems are
much less sensitive to environmental degradation than electro-optical systems, it is still necessary to
know how they function to support the air-to-ground missions. This fact was emphasized by Admiral
Thomas Moorer when he stated:
One of the most difficult decisions facing the operational commander today is the selection of the
optimum weapon systems to be usedsuch a decision cannot be made without competent weather
advice.
Figure 324. Munition guidance types.
All precision-guided munitions include certain components. They all have an explosive payload that
can vary from the relatively small 18 pound (lb) shaped-charge of the air-to-ground (AGM)114
Hellfire missile to the 4,700 lbs of high explosives of the GBU28 laser-guided bomb. The bomb or
missile uses planar or cruciform wings or fins, like those shown in figure 325, that allow for
changes in course or direction after release. Notice the planar wing in the lower right corner. It is like
an aircrafts wing and increases the range of a munition that is released at high altitudes. The more
common cruciform wing is mounted close to the tail and (or) mid-section of the munition, or may
extend the entire length of the munition. The fins are at 90 degree angles. They do not extend range,
but control the direction of the glide bomb or missile.
Figure 325. GBU15 components.
A missile has some means of propulsion, which is either a solid fuel rocket motor (found on air-toground missiles) or a jet turbine engine (found on cruise missiles). Rocket motors and turbine
engines significantly increase the range of the munition. All PGMs, whether glide bombs or missiles,
require some form of guidance system.
Figure 326 shows the three types of PGM systems that we discuss: active, passive and semi-active.
Figure 326. Types of PGM systems.
Active
An active guidance system provides the energy for target illumination and detects this energy as it is
reflected by the target. An active system has the designator and sensor in the same unit. Active
systems are generally radar systems. Because of the high cost of putting a complete radar set on a
missile that is to be used only once, active PGMs are only used against high-value targets such as
ships.
Passive
A passive guidance system detects energy that originates from the target itself. A passive TV-guided
bomb or missile has an imaging system that detects contrasts in reflected sunlight between the target
and the background (or detects the light of the target itself). A passive IR guided bomb or missile has
an imaging system that detects contrasts in the emitted far infrared energy between the target and the
background. A third type of passive system, the antiradiation missile, detects the radar energy emitted
from enemy air defense weapons.
Semi-active
A semi-active guidance system is a sensor that detects reflected energy provided by a designator that
is not on the munition. This designator may be on the same aircraft, on a different aircraft, or on the
ground (but not on the munition). Semi-active systems include radar and laser systems.
PGMs may be used in a variety of employment modes. Each mode is determined by the sequence in
which the weapon is released (launched), the system locks on to the target, and the aircraft leaves the
target area.
The lock-on/launch/leave (LO/LA/LV), or direct attack mode, may be used with any PGM. It must
be used with weapon systems for which there is no communication or telemetry or data link between
the munition and the aircraft after the weapon is released. This mode is compatible with passive,
active, or semi-active systems.
The launch/lock-on/leave (LA/LO/LV) may be used with passive systems equipped with telemetry
apparatus as in figure 327. It is also used for laser-guided munitions if the aircraft that launched the
weapon designates the target. Because the target must be designated up to impact, the pilot may not
exit the area until the bomb hits the target.
The launch/leave/lock-on (LA/LV/LO) may be used with passive systems equipped with telemetry
and active and semi-active systems. This mode may be used with laser-guided bombs if another
aircraft or ground-based laser designates the target (buddy designating). The pilot may exit the area
immediately after weapons release if designation of the target is not required. This mode of
employment is often referred to as "fire-and-forget."
Figure 327. Passive system equipped with telemetry.

The pilot, aircraft, and target acquisition system exist to put the munition on the target. The tactics
used to deliver the weapon determine how effectively the munition damages the target. The types of
tactics employed depends on a number of factors: the angle the bomb must strike the target to do the
most damage, the distance from the target for a safe egress, and the type of munition itself. This text
material briefly describes the laydown, the high and low angle dive, the toss, the loft, and the orbit
bombing tactics. The sneak and peek tactic for use with missiles is also described. Pay particular
attention to the factors affecting the effectiveness of these various tactics.
Laydown
A laydown, figure 328, is the release of artificially retarded weapons by aircraft passing over the
target at low altitude. This tactic is generally not used for precision-guided munitions, but for cluster
bombs and runway cratering munitions.
Figure 328. Laydown weapons delivery tactic.
High angle dive bombing

In a high altitude dive bomb weapon delivery, as shown on the left of figure 329, the aircraft
approaches the target area at either low, medium, or high altitude. Near the target, the aircraft either
remains at middle or high altitude or pops up to a sufficient altitude for weapon delivery. When the
aircraft is just about over the target, it initiates a high angle dive, usually between 60 and 80 degrees.
The aircraft releases the weapon and then egresses the target area.
There are several advantages to this type of delivery. It is easier to sight the weapon because the
gravity vector is nearly parallel to the flight path. The bombs trajectory does not deviate from the
sight path, so smaller sighting corrections are needed. The increased kinetic energy (high velocity) is
useful for penetration of hardened targets and decreases the chance of ricochet. High altitude dive
bombing may be the only option for certain mountainous terrain. It is also easier to view down
through the haze layer from a high angle.
There are several disadvantages, however. There is an increased exposure to enemy air defenses.
With delivery from higher altitudes, there is a greater variation in the winds along the bombs flight
path and higher ceilings are required.
Figure 329. High and shallow angle dive bombing tactic.
Shallow angle dive bombing

In a shallow angle dive bomb, as shown on the right of figure 329, the aircraft approaches the target
at low or middle altitude. At a predetermined distance from target, the aircraft initiates a low constant
angle approach (1 to 20 ), maintaining 1 gravity (g). The aircraft releases the weapon and then
egresses the target area.
The principle advantage is that the aircraft spends a minimum amount of time away from a very lowlevel flight profile. This tactic is useful for missile attacks against armor and strafing (guns and
missile salvos). This tactic allows for lower ceilings than high angle dive bombing and toss/loft
tactics.
The principle disadvantage is the susceptibility to all air defenses from SAMs to small arms. This
tactic also requires higher visibilities.
Toss and loft
Both the toss and the loft tactics begin with a low altitude approach to target with a pop up at a
predetermined point, usually about 5nm from the target. In a toss, the aircraft and bomb are pulling
more than 1g because the bomb is released by the aircraft on the climbing portion of loop as shown
in figure 330. In a loft, the aircraft is pulling only 1g because the bomb is released by the aircraft in
a straight angled climb as shown in figure 331. After the bomb is released, the aircraft may egress
the target area.
Figure 330. Toss bombing tactic.
Figure 331. Loft bombing tactic.
There are several advantages to these tactics. Most importantly, the aircraft has increased stand-off
range from enemy air defenses than with high altitude dive bombing. Because the bombs are released
from a relatively low altitude, there is less of a problem with winds (although winds are still an
important consideration). This tactic can also be used with lower ceilings; however, ceilings must
still be greater than the altitude to which the bomb is lofted or tossed (g-biased). With these tactics,
terrain masking can be used effectively for self-defense.
The disadvantages include more difficult sighting of the bomb because the gravity vector is at a
much greater angle to the sight path (almost 90 ), so more correction is required. Greater visibilities
are also required. This technique also results in shallower impact angles, so there is a greater chance
of a ricochet.
Orbit or wheel
Aircraft may orbit the target area at a safe stand-off distance (5 to 10km) and drop their bombs from
a high altitude and then remain at the stand-off distance to guide the weapon. This tactic is
particularly useful for multiple aircraft working off a single aircrafts laser designator as in figure 3
32. Like the high angle dive bomb, bombing trajectory calculations are straightforward and haze is
less of a problem than for other tactics.
Figure 332. Orbit or wheel bombing tactic.
Sneak and peek

This method is used only by helicopters. The helicopter hovers behind foliage, as in figure 333, and
comes up only for target acquisition or attack. The main advantages are protection from air defenses
and small arms fire. The main disadvantage is that it only works in forested areas or areas with
sufficient foliage or other natural obstructions. It is difficult to employ in desert environments.
Figure 333. Sneak and peek tactic.
SelfTestQuestions

1. List and describe each of the types of PGM systems.
1. Explain how each of the various employment modes of a PGM is determined.
1. On what do the different types of PGM employment tactics depend?
2. List the different types of PGM employment tactics.
3. Match each weapons delivery tactic or tactics in Column B with its advantage or disadvantage of
the tactic in Column A. Items in column B may be used once, more than once, or not at all. Each
question may have more than one answer.
Column A
Column B
_____ 1. Less affected by haze.
a. Orbit.
_____ 2. Minimizes time spent away from level

flight.
b. Laydown.
c. Enfilade.
_____ 3. Minimizes chance of ricochet.

d. Toss/Loft.
_____ 4. Force multiplier for target acquisition
system (multiple aircraft per target acquisition
system).
e. Cut and run.

f. Sneak and peek.
_____ 5. Increases stand-off range.

g. High angle dive bomb.
_____ 6. Significantly affected by haze.
_____ 7. Not available to fixed-wing aircraft.
h. Shallow angle dive

bomb.
_____ 8. Effective for aerodynamically retarded

munitions.
AnswerstoSelfTestQuestions
028
1. Its an electro-optical sensor that is mounted on an aircraft.
2. Its when an electro-optical sensor is mounted on a bomb or missile.
3. Visual systems depend on the contrast between the reflectivities of objects in a target scene, while FIR imaging systems depend on the
contrast between the emitted thermal energy of the different objects in a target scene.
029
1. The frequency ( ) of waves is inversely proportional to the wavelength based on the following formula: ( =
with a short wavelength has a high frequency and vice versa.
). For example, EMR
2. Radiated (emitted) and reflected energy.

3. This law illustrates the amount of energy emitted by a black body at a specific temperature for each wavelength of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
4. This law describes the total amount of energy emitted at all wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum to the temperature of a black
body
5. Wiens law describes how the wavelength of most of the energy emitted by an object is inversely proportional to its temperature?
030
1. They are inherent contrast, apparent contrast, and threshold contrast. Inherent contrast is the actual contrast between two objects based
solely on their properties. Apparent contrast is the contrast that a person or an EO sensor detects at some particular distance from a target
scene. Threshold contrast is the smallest contrast that can be detected by a sensor or by the human eye.
2. 5 Kelvin.
3. The threshold contrast for aircraft A is greater than the threshold contrast for aircraft B.
4. These are perfect, or specular, and diffuse reflector. The perfect reflector has the angle of incidence equaling the angle of reflection.
With a diffuse reflector, light is reflected in all directions equally, but the energy is diffuse.
5. The absorptivity of the material, the thermal conductivity, and the thermal capacity.
031
1. Because Rayleigh scattering depends on wavelength. Shorter wavelengths, such as blues, are scattered more than longer wavelengths,
such as reds. The blue photons that are coming from the sun are scattered more times than the red photons; therefore, they are more
widely distributed across the sky.
2. The effect that occurs when you use your high beams on foggy nights. Geometric scattering occurs when most of light is scattered in a
backward direction by the fog droplets.
3. At 1km only 92 photons are left, at 2km, 85 photons remain, at 3km, 78 photons remain, and at 4km only 66 photons remain.
4. 5.1 kilometers.
032
1. Beam scintillation, beam spread, and beam wander. Scintillation is caused by microscale turbulent eddies that are much smaller than
the beam width causing fluctuations of energy intensity within the cross section of the beam. The beam does not bend from a straight
line of sight or alter the width of the beam. Beam spread transpires when the microscale eddies are smaller than or about the same size as
beam width. The spread increases the cross-sectional area of the beam and decreases its energy intensity. Wander is caused by
microscale eddies larger than the beam width causing the beam to deviate from a straight line path making aiming more difficult.
033
1. As a wavelength increases, its resolution decreases, and its weather sensitivity decreases.
034
1. The angle of incidence and the depth of the atmosphere through which the suns energy travels.
2. In a battlefield situation/environment, there are natural restrictions to visibility such as fog, haze, etc. and those that do not occur
naturally. Smoke may be used to deliberately shield moving targets from sight during a battle. Battlefield-induced contaminants (BIC),
such as the smoke from burning targets and dust raised by bomb impacts, also can obscure the target scene. Because these conditions
change rapidly and are mostly induced by man, they are at best difficult to forecast accurately even with the most current weather and
intelligence information.
035
1. The differences in the absorptivity, thermal conductivity, and thermal capacity of the target and background.
2. As precipitation covers the passively heated targets and their backgrounds, conduction between the target and its background materials
and the precipitation causes all the temperatures to become about the same. However, self-heated targets stand out against comparable
backgrounds. Conduction and uneven evaporative cooling of rain and the melting of snow cause an increase in the thermal complexity
of a target. Thereby the more mottling of a target scene the closer an aircraft must get to sort out the targets and the backgrounds.
3.
Wind increases the amount of heat lost from all the objects, reducing the contrast for all the target scenes. The greater the wind
speed, the less thermal differences between the targets and their backgrounds will be.
4. At the two times during a day when a target and its background temperatures are the same (during the crossover times). This is due to
the object being the same temperature as its background.
5. Rain, snow, and other forms of precipitation cause severe attenuation of the target/background contrast transmission due to the
absorption by droplets. Clouds are very similar, they severely attenuate the contrast transmission. High dew points restrict the thermal
contrast transmission by water vapor absorption, while lithometeors, such as dust and haze, have little effect in dry air. Still, when the
relative humidity increases to 90 percent, significantly large haze droplets can form that diminish apparent contrast to the same extent
as fog and rain droplets.
036
1. Target area detection, target detection, target orientation, target recognition, and target identification.
2. (1) a.
(2) b.
(3) d.
(4) a.
(5) e.
(6) c.
(7) d.
037
1. Close air support (CAS), air interdiction (AI), suppression of enemy air defenses (SEAD), and offensive counter air (OCA). CAS is
support of friendly ground forces in close proximity to or engaged with enemy forces along the forward edge of the battle area (FEBA).
In a CAS mission, the pilot must adhere to CTAC before releasing weapons. CAS missions may be planned or flown on an alert basis.
AI strikes are against enemy targets far behind FEBA or forward line of own troops (FLOT). In an AI mission, a pilot may only have to
adhere to Phases IIV of the CTAC, if target recognition is essential and only if nothing else in the area is protected by the law of armed
conflict (LOAC). The pilot may also have to adhere to all five phases of the CTAC if munitions must hit a specific building or section of
building. Interdiction of lines of supply and communication to the FEBA and strikes against enemy troops that are about to be engaged is
called battlefield air interdiction or BAI. SEAD missions are strikes against air defenses, including antiaircraft artillery (AAA), surfaceto-air missile (SAM) batteries, and ground control intercept (GCI) radar. The CTAC is not necessarily adhered to as the target is
identified when enemy radar is activated. OCA missions are strikes against enemy airfields, including aircraft on the ground, hardened
shelters, and control and support facilities. Adherence to the CTAC is not necessary for this type of mission.
038
1. The launch envelope is the range of altitudes and distances within which a weapon can effectively reach the target without exposing
the aircraft to enemy air defenses. The range of the enemy air defenses determine the inner edge. The upper edge is determined by the
cloud base; this determines the ceiling of the aircraft and also the altitude to which a bomb or missile may be lofted or tossed. The outer
edge is determined by the lesser of the range of the munition or the visibility, the lock-on range, or the detection range of the weapon
itself.
039
1. They are active, passive, and semi-active systems. An active guidance system provides the energy for target illumination and detects
this energy as it is reflected by the target. A passive guidance system detects energy that originates from the target itself. A semi-active
guidance system is a sensor that detects reflected energy provided by a designator not on the munition. This designator may be on the
same aircraft, on a different aircraft, or on the ground but not on the munition.
040
1. Each mode is determined by the sequence in which the weapon is launched, the system locks on to the target, and the aircraft leaves
the target area.
041
1. The types depend on: the angle the bomb must strike the target to do the most damage, the distance from the target for a safe passage,
and the type of munition itself.
2. The laydown, the high and low angle dive, the toss, the loft, the orbit, and the sneak and peek tactics.
3. (1) a and g.
(2) h.
(3) g.
(4) a.
(5) d.
(6) d and h.
(7) f.
(8) b.

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3Atmospheric Effects on Electro-optics

31. Basic Physics of Radiative Transfer

31. Basic Physics of Radiative Transfer

The Stefan-Boltzmann law

where is a constant. An important consequence of the Stefan-Boltzmann law is that small

Emitted Energy (Watts/m2)

031. Contrast transmission

as a function of the radius of the atmospheric

scattered (r) and the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation ( ).

Figure 311. Major absorption bands of atmospheric gases in the region

Figure 312. An example of Beers law.

028. Electro-optical systems

What are the only energies available to EO sensors?

32. Environmental Sensitivities of PGMs

USUALLY DECREASES WITH LONGER WAVELENGTH

GENERALLY DECREASES WITH LONGER WAVELENGTH

034. Visual systems

Recent precipitation is as important as present precipitation in determining thermal contrast. It can

034. Visual systems

When is the worst time of day for using an IR system? Why?

33. Target Acquisition Systems and Tactics

Phase Itarget area detection

036. The classic target acquisition cycle (CTAC)

_____ 1. The first factor to consider is the targetto-background contrast.

_____ 2. During this phase, the pilot can

_____ 3. Aircrews are in contact with Airborne

d. Target area detection.

_____ 4. During this phase, the size of the target

037. Air-to-ground missions

34. Principles of Operation of PGMs

041. Employment tactics for PGMs

High angle dive bombing

Shallow angle dive bombing

Sneak and peek

039. Three types of PGM systems

_____ 1. Less affected by haze.

_____ 2. Minimizes time spent away from level

_____ 3. Minimizes chance of ricochet.

e. Cut and run.

_____ 5. Increases stand-off range.

h. Shallow angle dive

_____ 8. Effective for aerodynamically retarded

). For example, EMR

2. Radiated (emitted) and reflected energy.

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