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Page 1 of 16
HEAT
Thermometer Scales
On the Fahrenheit (F) thermometer, the freezing point of water is marked at 32 degrees on the scale, and
the boiling point of water at atmospheric pressure is marked at 2120. The distance between these points is
divided into 1800. On the Celsius thermometer, the freezing point of water is marked at 00 on the scale,
and the boiling point of water is marked at 1000.
The following formulas are used for converting temperatures:
9
DegreesFahrenheit = C + 32
5
DegreesCelsius =
5
( F 32)
9
Formula
Electrical Potential
Volt (V)
Electrical Resistance
Ohm ()
Electrical Capacitance
Farad (F)
s
F = A , s = seconds
V
Quantity of Electricity
Coulomb (C)
C = As , s = seconds
Electrical Inductance
Henry (H)
Magnetic Flux
Weber (Wb)
V =
W
A
V
A
H =
Wb
Wb
A
Vs
Page 2 of 16
The key is 1 horsepower - 1 Amp on 575 Volts. All others then become a direct ratio of this figure, ie.,
575/460 times 1.0 equals 1.25 A for 1 hp required on 460 V. Now, for example, with these facts at hand,
you can say that a 150-hp motor on 230 V will require approximately 375 A. This is obtained as follows: 1
hp on 230 V requires 2.5 A per horsepower, so you simply multiply 2.5 times 150 hp.
Horsepower Revolutions Per Minute - Torque
Torque is simply a twisting force that causes rotation around a fixed point. For example, torque is
something we all experience every time we pass through a revolving door. Horsepower is what is required
when we pass through the door, because we are exercising torque at a certain revolution per minute
(r/min). The faster we go through the revolving door, the more horsepower is required. In this case, the
torque remains the same. In relating this concept to motors, we use this rule of thumb:
1 horsepower at 1800 revolution per minute delivers 3 ft-lb of torque
1 horsepower at 900 revolutions per minute delivers 6 ft-lb of torque
Using this simple rule, we can see that a 10-hp motor at 1800 r/min delivers 30 ft-lb of torque, and a 20-hp
motor at 1800 r/min delivers 60 ft-lb of torque.
In another example, a 1-hp motor at 1200 r/min delivers 4.5 ft-lb of torque. Here is how to figure this.
Multiply the torque at 1800 r/min by the ratio 1800/ 1200. Torque, then, is the inverse ratio of the speed.
In other words, SPEED DOWNTORQUE UP for the same horsepower.
A quick estimate for the torque of a 125-hp, 600-r/min motor can be figured by the following procedure.
125 hp times 3 ft-lb equal 375 ft-lb of torque for a 125-hp motor at 1800 r/min. Now, to convert to 600
rpm, multiply 375 times 1800/600 rpm or 1125 ft-lb.
This gives a rule that will enable you to quickly determine the torque a motor is capable of delivering,
down to 10 rpm. Below this speed, other factors enter in that must be taken into consideration.
Shaft Size - Horsepower - Revolutions Per Minute
A number to remember here is 1150. This is easy to remember, and it stands for this: A 1-inch diameter
shaft can transmit 1 hp at 50 rpm. As the shaft speed goes up, so does the horsepower, and by the same
ratio. Therefore, if you double the speed, you double the horsepower capacity of the shaft. However,
when you double the shaft diameter, the capacity of the shaft to transmit horsepower is increased 8 times.
Thus, whatever the shaft size is in inches, cube it and multiply the resultant figure by the proper speed
ratio, and the horsepower-transmitting ability of the shaft is determined. However, it is advisable to be
conservative, so modify the results by 75% and use this resulting figure. To express this in a formula, use
the following:
ShaftHorsepower =
ShaftDiameterInInches RPM
50
Page 3 of 16
R I
E
R
EI
P
R
P
E
R I
P
I
PR
P E
I R
E
R
P
2
I
E2
P
E
I
ELECTRICAL FORMULAS
The rate of the flow of the current is equal to electromotive force divided by resistance.
Electromotive force = volts = E
Current = amperes = I
Resistance = ohms = R
Amperes =
Volts
Ohms
The resistance of a copper wire one foot long and one circular mil in cross sectional area has a voltage
drop of approximately 10.8 ohms.
A series circuit is a circuit that has only one path through which the electrons may flow.
Ohms Law (see ohms law chart) equals E = I R , I =
Page 4 of 16
E
E
,R =
R
I
Rule 1: The total current in a series circuit is equal to the current in any other part of the circuit.
I T = I 1 = I 2 = I 3 = I ETC
Rule 2: The total voltage in a series circuit is equal to the sum of the voltages across all parts of the
circuit.
ET = E1 + E 2 + E3 + E ETC .
Rule 3: The total resistance of a series circuit is equal to the sum of the resistances of all the parts of the
circuit.
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + R ETC
Power
AMPERES =
WATTS
P
OR I =
OR Amperes = I =
VOLTS
E
P
where P= Watts and R= Ohms
R
One electrical horsepower = 746 watts, electrical motors are rated in horsepower
One kilowatt = 1000 watts, generators are rated in kilowatts
Parallel Circuits
A parallel circuit is a circuit that has more than one path through which the electrons may flow.
Rule 1: The total current in a parallel circuit is equal to the sum of the currents in all the branches of the
circuit.
I T = I 1 + I 2 + I 3 + I ETC .
Rule 2: The total voltage across any branch in parallel is equal to the voltage across any other branch and
is also equal to the total voltage.
ET = E1 = E 2 = E 3 = E ETC
Rule 3: The total resistance in a parallel circuit is found by applying ohms law to the total values of the
circuit.
1
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
+
RT R 1 R 2 R 3
R ETC
Notes:
In a parallel circuit, the total resistance is always less than the resistance of any branch.
If the branches of a parallel circuit have different resistance values, then each will draw a different current.
In either a series circuit or a parallel circuit, the larger the resistance, the smaller the current drawn.
Page 5 of 16
Direct Current:
Amperes =
horsepower 746
hp 746
or I =
volts efficiency
E % Eff
Amperes =
kilowatts 1000
KW 1000
or I =
Volts
E
Horsepower =
Single Phase:
Amperes =
Kilowatts 1000
P
or I =
Volts PowerFactor
E PF
Amperes =
horsepower 746
volts efficiency PowerFactor
Horsepower =
Three Phase
Amperes =
Watts
Kilowatts 1000
or Amperes =
Volts 1.73 PowerFactor
Volts PowerFactor 1.73
Amperes =
Horsepower 746
Volts Efficiency PowerFactor 1.73
Amperes =
Kilovoltamperes 1000
Volts 1.73
Horsepower =
Page 6 of 16
Volts 2
Re sisi tan ce( Ohms )
Capacitance (C)
Q Coulombs
=
E
Volts
Capacitance is the property of a circuit or body that permits it to store an electrical charge equal to the
accumulated charge divided by the voltage. Expressed in FARADS. Farads are a very large number, so
microfarads are often used more.
C=
1
2 3.1416 Frequency Capaci tan ce
XC =
or
1
1
=
2FC 6.28 FC
Page 7 of 16
Impedance (Z)
Impedance is the total opposition to an alternating current presented by a circuit (OHMS). Total AC
resistance.
Z=
E
Volts
=
, Im pedance( Z ) = R 2 + ( X L X C ) 2
I
Amperes
TruePower
P
R
=
=
ApparentPower EI Z
TRIGONOMETRY
Trigonometry is the mathematics dealing with the relations of sides and angles of triangles. A triangle is a
figure enclosed by three straight sides. The sum of the three angles is 180 degrees. All triangles have six
parts: three angles and three sides opposite the angles. Right triangles are triangles that have one angle of
ninety degrees and two angles of less than ninety degrees.
OppositeSide
Hypotenuse
CoSine =
AdjacentSide
Hypotenuse
Tangent =
OppositeSide
AdjacentSide
CoTangent =
Secant =
AdjacentSide
OppositeSide
Hypotenuse
AdjacentSide
CoSecant =
60
Hypotenuse
OppositeSide
HYPOTENUSE
OPPOSITE SIDE
Sine =
Y
X
30
ADJACENT SIDE
90
Page 8 of 16
95 %
90 %
85 %
80 %
75 %
50
52
54
55
56
58
60
62
64
65
66
68
70
72
74
75
76
78
80
82
84
85
86
88
90
92
94
95
1.732
1.643
1.558
1.518
1.479
1.404
1.333
1.265
1.201
1.168
1.139
1.078
1.020
0.964
0.909
0.882
0.855
0.802
0.750
0.698
0.646
0.620
0.594
0.540
0.485
0.426
0.363
0.329
1.403
1.314
1.229
1.189
1.150
1.075
1.004
0.936
0.872
0.839
0.810
0.749
0.691
0.635
0.580
0.553
0.526
0.473
0.421
0.369
0.317
0.291
0.265
0.211
0.156
0.097
0.034
1.247
1.158
1.073
1.033
0.994
0.919
0.848
0.780
0.716
0.683
0.654
0.593
0.535
0.479
0.424
0.397
0.370
0.317
0.265
0.213
0.161
0.135
0.109
0.055
1.112
1.023
0.938
0.898
0.859
0.784
0.713
0.645
0.581
0.548
0.519
0.458
0.400
0.344
0.289
0.262
0.235
0.182
0.130
0.078
0.982
0.893
0.808
0.768
0.729
0.654
0.583
0.515
0.451
0.418
0.389
0.328
0.270
0.214
0.159
0.132
0.105
0.052
0.850
0.761
0.676
0.636
0.597
0.522
0.451
.0383
0.319
0.286
0.257
0.196
0.138
0.082
0.027
TRANSFORMER CALCULATIONS
Primary winding = (p) and Secondary winding = (s)
Page 9 of 16
Power (p) = Power (s) minus inefficiencies (iron loss, hysteresis, eddy currents)
Transformers are very efficient devices usually 99% plus.
ES I S
ES I S
EP I P
EP I P
, IP =
, IS =
, ES =
IP
EP
ES
IS
E S TP
E S TP
E P TS
E P TS
, TS =
, TP =
, ES =
TS
EP
ES
TP
I S TS
I S TS
I P TP
I P TP
, TP =
, TS =
, IS =
TP
IP
IS
TS
Page 10 of 16
90V
4.0
6.2
6.8
9.6
12.2
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
120V
3.1
4.1
6.4
7.6
9.5
13.2
17
25
40
58
76
-------------------------------------------------
180V
2.0
2.5
3.4
4.8
6.1
8.3
10.8
16
27
---------------------------------------------------------
240V
1.5
2.0
2.7
3.8
4.7
6.6
8.6
12.2
20
29
38
55
72
89
105
140
173
206
266
341
425
506
675
500V
------------------------------------13.6
18
27
34
43
51
87
83
99
123
164
205
246
330
550V
------------------------------------12.2
16
24
31
38
46
61
76
90
111
148
186
222
294
Page 11 of 16
TIME
AC Sine Wave Terminology: Notice that the horizontal line representing zero divides the sine wave into
two equal parts - one above the line and the other below it. The portion above the line represents the
positive alternation of an alternating current. The portion below the line represents the negative
alternation. Notice that the wave reaches its maximum swing from the zero reference line at 90 degrees
and 270 degrees. Each of these points is called the peak of the sine wave. When we speak of the
amplitude of a sine wave, we mean the maximum swing, height, or size of one of the alternations at its
peak. These terms apply to either current or voltage and are important to remember. As an example,
suppose you have a sine wave with an amplitude of four centimeters; that is, the peak of the sine wave is
four centimeters from the zero reference line. Let us also suppose that each centimeter of deflection
represents ten volts. Knowing these facts, you can find the amplitude of the voltage that the sine wave
represents by multiplying the number of centimeters by the value of voltage each represents (4 x 10 = 40).
Thus, you can find the peak amplitude is 40 volts.
This curve is identical to one produced by plotting the sine values of a vector rotated through 360 degrees.
Therefore, we call it a sine -wave. The form or shape of the sine wave can represent either alternating voltage or alternating current. Let us examine an AC sine wave in greater detail, using the following figure.
Page 12 of 16
PEAK
POSITIVE
AMPLITUDE
PEAK TO
PEAK
360
0
180
90
270
NEGATIVE
AMPLITUDE
PEAK
POSITIVE
ALTERNATION
NEGATIVE
ALTERNATION
Next, let us take the term: peak-to-peak. This term, as you can see in the above figure, represents the
difference in value between the positive and negative peaks of a sine wave. Of course, this is equal to
twice the peak value: E pk-pk = 2 E pk. Why is this so important? There is one reason.
Suppose that when you were finding the amplitude of a sine wave, as you did in the previous problem,
there was no zero reference time and the positive and negative peaks of the sine wave were five
centimeters apart. It would be difficult to determine the exact zero reference. Therefore, it would be hard
to obtain an accurate peak displacement of the sine wave. However, by using the peak-to-peak value and
dividing it by two, you obtain the accurate amplitude. The peak-to-peak value is 50 volts (5 x 10 = 50).
The peak value is 25 volts (50 + 2 = 25).
Since the amplitude of a sine wave varies continuously between zero and maximum (peak) values, first in
one direction and then in the other, the peak value is not too useful in describing the value of a voltage or
current. A more useful value is the effective value. The effective value of alternating current is the amount
of AC, which produces the same heating effect as an equal amount of DC. Since the heating effect of a
quantity of current is proportional to the square of the current, it is possible to calculate the effective value
of alternating current by squaring the values of all points on a sine wave, taking the average of these
values, and extracting the square root. The effective value is, thus, the root of the mean (average) square
of these values. Therefore, it is also known as the root-mean-square, or RMS value. When we speak of
household voltage as having a value of 110 volts, we mean that it has an effective or RMS value of 110
volts.
The number .707 is the root of the mean square of the values of a sine wave. This means that the effective
value of a voltage or current is .707 times the maximum or peak value.
E effective = 0.707 E peak or E peak = 1.414 E effective
Therefore, if a since wave had a peak amplitude of 10 volts, the effective voltage would be 7.07 volts (.707
x 10 = 7.07). The reciprocal of .707 is 1.414. Therefore, if you know the effective value of a voltage, you
can find the peak value by multiplying the effective value by 1.414.
Another value in a sine wave that is important to know is the average value. This is the average value of
all points in the positive alternation. The relationship between, the average, effective, and peak values is
shown in the following formula:
E average = 0.636 E peak = 0.9 E effective
As you can see, average voltage is equal to .636 of the peak or maximum voltage and .9 of the effective
Page 13 of 16
voltage. The reciprocal of .9 is 1.11. Therefore, the effective voltage is 1.11 times the average voltage.
E effective = 1.11 E average
Now, let us go back to the sine wave and learn some additional terms, using Figure 1A-3 (on next page).
As we stated before, alternating current is periodically reversing direction. We call two consecutive
alternations, one positive, and one negative, a cycle. We often refer to the positive and negative
alternations as half cycles. In describing the sine wave, we could say that during the positive half cycle, it
rises from zero to maximum and then falls back to zero, and that during the negative half cycle, it drops to
a maximum negative value and then returns to zero.
We also stated earlier that the alternations of AC do not happen instantaneously. They take time. For
example, household current is usually sixty cycles per second. This means that a single cycle requires a
period of time equal to one-sixtieth of a second. The term period is used to define the time of one cycle of
alternating current. Another term having the same meaning as time and period is duration. Let us see how
each of these terms could be used when speaking of household current. We could say, The duration of
one cycle is one-sixtieth of a second; or, One cycle has a period of one-sixtieth of a second; or, Onesixtieth of a second is the time of one cycle. As you can see, all three terms can be used in each of the
statements without changing the meaning.
All alternating current does not have a period of one-sixtieth of a second. The period of a commonly used
current in aircraft (for example) is one-four-hundredth of a second. This means that in one second there
are four hundred complete cycles. The difference in the number of cycles per second of household current
and aircraft current brings up a new term - frequency. The frequency of any AC is the number of cycles
that occur in one second. The frequency of household current is sixty cycles per second. The frequency of
aircraft current is four hundred
ONE CYCLE
cycles per second.
As you can see in the figure, there is
a definite relationship the period of
an alternating current and the
frequency of the current. Notice
that sine wave A has a period that is
twice the period of sine wave B and
its frequency is only one-half the
frequency of sine wave B. It is
important to remember that, as the
period of time for one cycle becomes
shorter, the frequency increases.
FULL CYCLE
PERIOD
TWO CYCLES
POSITIVE
HALF CYCLE
NEGATIVE
HALF CYCLE
ADDITIONAL SINE
WAVE TERMINOLOGY
PERIOD
RELATIONSHIP OF
PERIOD TO FREQUENCY
In electronics, sixty cycles and four hundred cycles per second are relatively low frequencies. When we
talk of frequencies in the thousands or millions, it becomes awkward and cumbersome to use cycles as a
standard measuring term. Therefore, when we speak of frequencies in the thousands, we use the term
kilocycles; and when we speak of frequencies in the millions, we use the term megacycles. You no doubt
have heard these terms on radio and television when the announcer identifies the station. The term kilo
means thousand. The term mega stands for million. Therefore, kilocycle means a thousand cycles and
megacycle means a million cycles.
Page 14 of 16
When we speak of a frequency of 10 kilocycles, we mean that there are 10,000 cycles per second. When
we speak of a frequency of 600 megacycles, we are speaking of 600,000,000 cycles per second. After
learning these terms, you can easily see how much simpler it is to use them when referring to high
frequencies. Its like using miles in place of feet when measuring long distances.
Since the period of a cycle becomes smaller as the frequency increases, we not only need new terms for
very high values, but we also need new terms for very small values. Therefore, we use the prefixes milli
and micro when we talk of a thousandth or a millionth part of something. When we talk of a thousandth of
a second, we say millisecond. We use microsecond when we talk of a millionth of a second.
Now, let us go back to the sine wave and take up a few more points that we should know when working in
electronics. An AC sine wave is a pictorial presentation of alternating current. It shows the direction of
current by rising above, and dropping below, the zero reference line. The current reverses direction at the
zero reference line at the beginning of each half cycle. There are two current reversals in each cycle.
Since the frequency of an AC is the number of cycles per second, we can find the number of current
reversals in an AC by multiplying the frequency by two. A sixty-cycle current has one-hundred-twenty
current reversals per second (60 x 2 = 120). A sine wave can represent either current or voltage. Since
voltage is used to produce current, let us compare the sine waves in a different way than we have before
Sine Wave Phase Relationship
This figure shows three sine waves. The top wave
represents voltage. The two other waves represent
the current produced by the voltage represented by
the top wave.
Notice that the voltage sine wave A and the current
sine wave B move together. That is, they start at
zero, rise to maximum at ninety degrees, return to
zero at one-hundred eighty degrees, and repeat the
same action in the negative half cycle. As the two
sine waves go through all phases of the cycle
together, we say that they are in-phase. We do not
limit the use of this term to just the voltage and the
current produced by the voltage. We also speak of
two alternating voltages or two alternating currents,
which rise and fall together as being in-phase.
A
0
B
0
VOLTAGE
CURRENT
IN PHASE
CURRENT OUT
OF PHASE
0
C
Page 15 of 16
SYMBOL
1018
1,000,000,000,000,000,000
exa
1015
1,000,000,000,000,000
peta
1012
1,000,000,000,000
tera
109
1,000,000,000
giga
106
1,000,000
mega
103
1000
kilo
102
100
hecto
h*
101
10
deka
da*
10-1
.1
deci
d*
10-2
.01
centi
c*
10-3
.001
milli
10-6
.000001
micro
10-9
.000000001
nano
10-12
.000000000001
pico
10-15
.000000000000001
femto
10-18
.000000000000000001
atto
Page 16 of 16
PREFIX