The Covalent Bond

Chapter one

Dalton theory : atoms were regarded as the smallest possible

components of matter.

Humphry Davy : discovered five elements (K , Na , Ca , Sr , Ba) by

using electricity decompose compounds.
This work led Davy to propose that elements are held to gather in
compounds by attractions that are electrical in nature.

Michael faraday : ran an important series of experiments on chemical

electrolysis in which compounds are decomposed by electricity faraday
determined the quantitative relation ships between the amount` of
electricity used in an electrolysis and its chemical effect.

George johnstone stony : proposed in 1874 that units of electrical

charge were associated with atom in 1891 . Stony suggested that these
units be called electrons .
Attempts to pass an electric current through a vacuum led to discovery of
cathode rays by Julius plucker.

Generate and properties of cathode rays :

1) Two electrodes are sealed in a glass tube from which air is
almost completely removed .
2) When a high voltage is impressed across these electrodes rays
stream from the negative electrode called the cathode.
3) These rays are negative charged travel in straight lines and
cause the walls opposite the cathode to glow .

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Chapter one

Deflections of cathode rays :

a) In a magnetic field .
b) With magnetic and electric fields balanced (no net
deflection).
c) In an electric field .

The degree of deflection varies :

1) Directly with the size the charge of the particle . (a particle
with a high charge is deflected more than one with a low
charge.
2) Inversely the mass of the particle ( a particle with a large
mass is deflected less than one with a small mass) .
* The ratio of charge to mass e/m therefore determines the
extent are deflected from a straight line path in an electric field.
e / m = 1.7588 108 coul / g
The coulomb (coul) :- Is the unit of electric charge .

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Chapter one

Robert. A. Millikan experiment :

1) Electrons are produced by the action of X rays on the molecules

of which air is composed .
2) Very small drops of oil pick up electrons and acquire electric
charges .
3) The oil drops are allowed to settle between two horizontal plates
and the mass of a single drop is determined by measuring its rate
of fall .
4) When the plates are charged , the rate of fall the drop is altered
because the negatively charged drops is attracted to positive plate
.
5) Since given drop can pick up one more electrons the charges
calculated in this way are not identical .
6) Which is assumed to be the charge on a single electron .
e = - 1.6022 10-19 coul
The mass of the electron can be calculated from the value of e/m

e
m=

e/m

-1.6022 10-19 coul

-1.7588 10 coul / g

= 9.1096 10-28 g

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Chapter one

The proton :

1) Positive particles of this type (positive ions) are formed in electric

discharge tube cathode rays rip electrons from the atoms or molecules
of the gas present in the tube .
2) These positive ions more toward the negative electrode (the cathode) .
3) If holes have been bored in this electrode .
4) The positive ions pass through them (the holes) .
5) These streams of positive ions called (positive rays) .
6) The deflection of positive rays in electric and magnetic fields were
studied .
7) Different gases are used in the discharge tube, different types of
positive ions are produced .
8) When hydrogen gas is used , a positive particle results that has
smallest mass and hence the largest e/m value of any positive ion
observed .
e/m = +9.5791 104 coul / g
These particles now called protons .
9) The proton has a charge equal in magnitude to that of the electron but
in sign .
10) This charge is called the "unit electrical charge" .
11) The proton in said have unit positive charge and the electron a unit
negative charge .
12) The mass of the proton which is 1836 times the mass of the
electron can be calculated from these data .

e
m=

e/m

+1.6022 10-19 coul

+9.5791 104 coul / g

= 1.6726 10-24 g

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Chapter one

The neutron :
*Ernest Rutherford : In 1920 postulated the existence of an
uncharged particle . Since this particle is uncharged , it is difficult to
detect and characterize.

* James Chadwick : Published the results of his work which

established the existence of the neutron . He was able to calculate the
mass of the neutron from data on certain nuclear reaction in which
neutrons are produced .
* Chadwick determined the mass of the neutron which is very slightly
larger than that of the proton .
* The (n0) has mass of = 1.6749 x 10-24g and the (p+) = 1.6726 x 10-24

The Nuclear atom

Radio activity : Certain atoms are unstable of the subatomic particles .
These atoms spontaneously emit rays an in this way change atoms
spontaneously emit rays an in this way change atoms with different
chemical identity .

Ernest Rutherford : Explained the nature of three type of rays

emitted by radioactive substances that occur in nature .
Ray

Symbol

Composition

Charge of
component

Alpha

Particles containing 2p+ and 2no

2+

Beta
gamma

electrons
Very short wavelength electromagnetic radiation

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The Covalent Bond

Chapter one

Alpha rays : Consist of particles that carry a 2+ charge and have a

mass approximately four that of the proton.
These
particles are ejected from the radioactive substance
consist of (2p+) and (2no) .

particles

Beta rays : are streams of electrons .

Gamma radiation : Is essentially a highly energetic from of light.
Which is uncharged and are similar to X rays .

Rutherford : Reported the results of experiments in which :

1.
Particles were used to investigate the structure of the atom.
2. A beam of
particles was directed against a very thin foil of gold (pt
, Ag , Cu) .
3. The large majority of the particles went directly through the foil in
use .
4. Some however were deflected from their straight line path .
5. A few recoiled back to wards their source .

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* Rutherford explained the result of these experiments by

proposing :1. A nucleus exists in center of the atom .
2. Most of the mass and all of the positive charge of the atom are
concentrated in the nucleus .
3. The electrons (Which occupy most of the total volume of the atom) .
Are outside motion around it . Since an atom is electrically neutral .
The positive charge of nucleus equals the total negative charge of the
electrons .
The neutrons and protons together account for the mass of the nucleus .

* Notes :
1. Most of the Volume of an atom is empty space .
2. Most particles pass directly through the target foils .
3. The light electrons do not deflect the heavier past moving
particle .
4. A close approach of an particles (which is positive charge) to a
nucleus (which is also positively charged) results in the repulsion
of the particle and deflection from it straight line path .
5. When
particle scores a direct hit on the nucleus . The particle is
reflected back toward its source .

Isotopes : All atoms of given atomic number some elements however

consist of several types of atoms that differ from one another in mass
number .
* Isotopes, therefore differ in number of neutrons in the nucleus . Which
means that they differ in atomic mass .

* The chemical properties :- which depend principally upon the numbers

of proton and electrons that the atom contains.
* Isotops of the same element therefore have very similar in most cases
indistinguishable chemical properties .
* Some elements exist in nature in only one isotopic form (Na , Be , f) .
Most element however have more than one natural isotope (tin (sn) 10
isotopes) .
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The mass spectrometer

1. Is used to determine the types of isotopes present in an element . The

exact atomic masses of these isotopes and the relative amount of each
isotopes present .
2. Positive ion are produced from vaporized material by bombardment
with electrons .
3. These ion are attracted toward negatively charged slit .
4. They are accelerated by the attraction and pass through the slit with a
high velocity .
5. The beam of ion in then through a magnetic field .
6. Charged particles follow a circular path in a magnetic field .
7. The higher the charge on the particle (e) the more it is deflected from
straight - line path .
8. The mass of a particle (m) on the other hand is inversely related to the
degree of deflection .
9. The larger the mass of particle field the less it is deflected from a
straight line path .
10.The radius of the path of a positive ion in the magnetic field therefore
depends upon the value of e/m .
11.All the ion that pass through the final slit have the same value of e/m .
12.Ions with other values of e/m can be made to pass through this slit by
adjusting the magnetic field .
13.Each type of ion present can by made to pass through the slit
separately .
14.The detector measures the intensity of each ion beam which depends
upon the relative amount of each isotope present in the sample .
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Chapter one

Electromagnetic radiation :
E. M. R. : Travels through space in a wave motion terms describe
these waves .
1. The wavelength ( lambda) its the distance from crest to crest (or
trough to trough) .
2. The amplitude (a) of wave is its height . The intensity (or brightness)
of the radiation is proportional to the square of the amplitude , a 2 .

3. In a vacuum all wares , regardless of wavelength travel of the same

speed 2.9979 108 m/s . This speed is called the speed of light and
given the symbol)c( .
4. The frequency of the radiation (v) (nu) is the number of wave that pass
a given spot in a second for a given type of radiation, the wavelength
time the number of wave per second (frequency) equals the distance
traveled per second (the speed of light) .
v=c

and therefore v =

* The electromagnetic spectrum

1.
2.
3.
4.

Radio waves : have very long wavelength ( ).

Infrared waves : (radiant heat) have moderate wave lengths .
rays : (from radioactive decay) have extremely short wave lengths .
White light : (visible light) consists of rays with wavelengths in the
approximate range 400 750 nm .

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* The wave theory : Successfully interprets many properties of

electromagnetic radiation .
Other properties however require that such radiation be considered as
consisting of particles .
* In 1900 max plank proposed the (quantum theory) of radiant energy.
Plank suggested that radiant energy could be absorbed or given off only
in definite quantities (called quanta) .
E=hv
E =The energy of quantum.
V= The frequency of the radiation.
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h=plank constant =6.6262 10 J.s
High energy radiation, therefore, has a high frequency. A high frequency
means that large number of wave pass a spot in 1s. The wavelength,
therefore must be short. In 1905, albert Einstein proposed that planks
quanta are discontinuous bits of energy, which were later named photons.

Atomic spectra :

* When a rays of light is passed through a prism the rays is bent or

refracted .The amount the wave is refracted depends upon its wavelength
() , Since ordinary white in the visible range .
* A ray of white light is spread out into a wide bond called a ((continuous
spectrum)). This spectrum is a rainbow of colors with no blank spots
violet merges into blue , blue into green and so on .
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* When gases of vapors a chemical substance are heated in an electric arc

Bunsen flame light is emitted . If a ray of this light is passed a through a
prism , a line spectrum is produced this spectrum consists of a limited
number of colored lines . Each of which correspond to different
wavelength () of light the line spectrum of each element is unique .
* The frequencies that correspond to the line in the visible region of the
hydrogen spectrum are given by the equation :

V=

(3.290 1015/s)(

1
2

1
n

n=3,4,5

Bohr theory :
Bohr proposed a theory for the electronic structure of the hydrogen
atom that explained the line spectrum of this element . The hydrogen
atom contains one electron and a nucleus that consist of a single
proton .

This theory includes the following points :

1. The electron of the hydrogen atom can exist only in certain
spherical orbits (which are also called energy or shells. These are
arranged concentrically around the nucleus .
2. The electron has a definite energy characteristic of the orbit in
which it is moving . The (k) level (n = 1) the shell closest to the
nucleus , has the smallest radius . An electron in the (k) level has
the lowest possible energy with increasing distance from the
nucleus (k , L , M , N . O) in the shell increase .
3. When the electrons if an atom are close to nucleus as possible (for
hydrogen , one electron in the k shell) they are condition of lowest
possible energy . Called the ground state . When the atom are
heated in an electric arc or Bunsen flame . Electrons absorb energy
and jump to outer levels . Which are higher states . The atoms are
said to be in excited states .
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4. When an electron falls back to a lower level , it emits a definite

amount of energy the energy difference between the high energy
state and low energy state is emitted in the form of ((a quantum of
light)) . The light quantum has characteristic and wavelength and
produces a characteristic spectral line .
5. Bohr derived an equation for energy that an electron would have in
each orbit , Eorbit
Eorbit =

2.180 10-18 j

n=1,2,3

n2
* The relationship between some of the electronic transitions of the
hydrogen atom the spectral lines is :

* When electron transitions to the n = 1 level (Lyman series) release more

energy . Than these to the n = 2 (Balmer series) .
* The wavelength of the lines of the lyman series are shorter than hose of
the Balmer series .
* The lines of the lyman series occur in the ultraviolet region .
* The lines of the paschen series which represent transition of the n = 3
level occur at wavelengths longer than the Balmer series .
* The paschen lines appear in the infrared .
* The Bohr theory is highly successful interpreting the spectrum of
hydrogen . But it fails however to explain the spectra that contain more
than one electron .
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Chapter one

Wave Mechanics
Bohr regarded the electron as a charged particle in motion and he
assumed that the electron in a hydrogen atom can possess only certain
definite quantities of energy .
Other aspect of the theory however . He derived from the lows of
classical physics that pertain to the behavior of charged particles .
* In order to predict the path of a moving body . We must know both its
position and velocity at the same time .

Werner Heisenberg's ((uncertainty principle)) state that :

It is impossible to determine simultaneously the exact position and exact
momentum of body as small as the electron . The more precisely we try
to determine one of these values the other.
* We see objects by noting interference with the light rays used to
illuminate them . Radiation with an extremely short wave length would
be needed to locate an object as small as the electron . Such radiation has
c
a high frequency V = and is there fore very energetic E = hv .

* When it strikes the electron the impact causes the direction of motion
and speed of the electron changes the momentum of the electron
drastically .
Photons with longer wavelengths are less energetic and would have a
smaller effect on the momentum of the electron . Because of their longer
wavelengths such photons however would indicate the position of the
electron very precisely .
* In 1924 (louis de Broglie) proposed that electron and other particles
have wave properties . He showed that it is possible to assign a
wavelength to moving electron .
* In 1926 Erwin schrodinger used Broglie's relation to develop an
equation that describe the electron in terms of wave character.
* So the schrodiger is the bases of wave mechanics .
The equation is written in terms of a wave function () (psi) for an
electron .
Each wave function correspond to definite energy state for the electron
and pertains to region in which the electron may be found .
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