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Abstract
Interest in sour, high-pressure high-temperature (HPHT) wells
and in ultra-HPHT wells, i.e. those with bottom hole
temperatures greater than about 300 F (150 C) and wellhead
pressures greater than about 10,000 psig (690 bar), is
increasing worldwide. Due to the desire to monetize reserves
more rapidly and due to the aggressiveness of sour, HPHT and
ultra-HPHT environments, these wells are likely be completed
using large diameter casing and tubing that is manufactured
from solid, high-strength corrosion resistant alloys (CRAs).
Wellheads will likely be manufactured from high strength low
alloy steel that is clad internally with CRAs.
The combination of corrosion resistance and strength offered
by solid CRAs and CRA-clad steels has spurred decisions to
produce otherwise uneconomic sour, HPHT and ultra-HPHT
wells around the world for several decades now. However,
current levels of conservatism in materials selection and
evaluation and in design of HPHT well equipment is not likely
to be sustainable in the future. Thus, this paper provides a
review of the knowledge gained from previous HPHT
developments with the dual aims of extending the safe and
successful development record of the E&P industry related to
HPHT wells and improving the cost-effectiveness of future
CRA completion designs.
Increasingly aggressive conditions are beginning to expose
limitations in current design methodologies for tubing and
casing strings, connections, seals, downhole jewelry, and
valves. Linear elastic design methodologies are likely to be
supplanted by elastic-plastic, fatigue, and fracture mechanics
based methodologies in the near future, and this will likely
result in a need for detailed data related to CRA materials
properties including flow stress, fracture toughness, and lowcycle fatigue resistance, data that is largely nonexistent at
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Pitting corrosion,
Crevice corrosion, and
(As used herein, the term EAC includes sulfide stress cracking
(SSC), stress corrosion cracking (SCC), and other cracking
phenomena.)
Table 1 shows a partial listing of the CRAs that have been
successfully used for existing HPHT and ultra-HPHT wells.
These same materials are likely to be used in future HPHT
wells. Furthermore, industrys experience with these alloys,
which is largely embodied in NACE MR0175/ISO 15156(6)
indicates that their performance in new HPHT wells will
continue to be governed by:
Downhole Jewelry
F6NM
Alloy 718
Alloy 925
Alloy 725
Alloy 625PH
Springs
MP35N
Elgiloy
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the 13Cr steels are not likely to be used in sour HPHT wells
due to their demonstrated propensities for pitting corrosion,
crevice corrosion at high temperatures and EAC at relatively
low H2S partial pressures.
However, there remains
controversy over the H2S and temperature limits to which
these alloys, particularly the super 13Cr steels, can be
exposed without cracking. Manufacturers of these alloys
generally publish recommended chloride and temperature
temperature limits for their alloys. Additional conservative
limits for martensitic stainless steels in H2S may be found in
NACEMR0175/ISO 15156.
Duplex Stainless Steels
The duplex stainless steels, including the 22Cr, 25Cr, and
25Cr + W classes, exhibit considerably more resistance to
pitting, crevice corrosion, and cracking than the martensitic
steels at all temperatures(13). However, they remain susceptible
to localized corrosion and cracking in relatively small amounts
of H2S. These materials also show a marked influence of
chloride ion concentration on their resistance to cracking,
making interpretation and extrapolation from published test
data difficult. Although guidelines for the use of duplex steels
in HPHT conditions exist, acceptance of these guidelines is
not universal; and the final decision of whether to use duplex
steels in a given environment is left to the end user.
The duplex steels must be cold worked for strengthening,
which does not appreciably affect their resistance to corrosion
in CO2/brine solutions. However, cold working can have a
considerable detrimental effect on their cracking resistance in
H2S, and the effects of cold work on the cracking resistance of
duplex steels should be considered carefully before a final
selection is made. This is particularly true for duplex steels
with yield strengths above about 135 ksi.
Nickel-Based Alloys
The super austenitic stainless steels and the family of nickelbase alloys represent a large group of materials that have
proved useful in sour HPHT and sour ultra-HPHT
environments. Both the cold-worked alloys (e.g. 825, G-3, C276) and the precipitation-hardened varieties (e.g. 718, 725,
925) exhibit increased resistance to all forms of corrosion and
cracking at higher temperatures and H2S concentrations than
the duplex and martensitic stainless steels.
High nickel alloys are generally immune to all concentrations
of CO2 and, therefore, are limited only by H2S, temperature
and the presence of elemental sulfur. Additionally, they are
not very sensitive to chloride concentration except at quite
high levels (> 100,000 ppm). Thus, the effects of different
chloride levels, which can vary significantly from the bottom
to the top of wells due to water condensation, should always
be explored carefully before final selection of one of these
alloys is made. Additionally alloys such as C-276 and 625 in
the heavily cold-worked condition may be susceptible to aging
at temperatures around 600 F (315 C)(14). Therefore, for
such applications, the ageing behavior of these and similar
solid solution strengthened Ni-base alloys should be checked
before a final selection is made.
The high nickel alloys are more difficult to cast and are more
prone to casting defects such as hot tears, cracking and
porosity than steels and other CRAs (14). Their corrosion
resistance may not be equal to wrought alloys with the same
trade name (14). Therefore end users should develop stringent
specifications for cast nickel-base alloy components and work
closely with the foundry to ensure that casting integrity is
maintained.
Comments on Specific Environments
Elemental Sulfur
Elemental sulfur has been found to cause severe pitting and
catastrophic cracking in many CRAs(15). Alloy C-276, a coldworked, nickel-base alloy containing nominally 65Ni, 15Cr,
and 16 Mo, is by far the CRA with the most resistance to
corrosion and cracking in environments that contain elemental
sulfur; however, even C-276 is not immune to its effects(11). If
elemental sulfur is expected in a well, testing of all candidate
alloys is highly recommended.
CO2
At high partial pressures of CO2, where the in situ pH is below
4, pitting may initiate on 13Cr and some super-13Cr
materials(12). The CO2 concentration or partial pressure has not
proven to be critical to the performance duplex, and nickelbase CRAs in non-HPHT, sour wells(11). However, it is
possible that certain of these alloys with relatively low pitting
resistance equivalent numbers (PREN 35) may not be able
to form or maintain their passive films in sour HPHT wells.
Thus, current ranking systems that allow use of low-PREN
CRAs in sour wells without regard to CO2 partial pressure
may have to be modified for use under HPHT conditions.
Production Chemicals
In addition to produced fluids, candidate alloys for HPHT
wells will be required to resist corrosion and cracking caused
by the other fluids to which they may be exposed during
production operations. These may be natural fluids (such as
seawater), manufactured chemicals (such as brines and
mineral acids), or combinations of these. While the majority of
these fluids have a history of successful use with CRAs in
non-HPHT wells, in many cases their compatibility with
CRAs under HPHT or sour HPHT conditions is not well
known and requires further study and review. The effects of
most or even all the fluids listed in Section 6.3 of European
Federation of Corrosion (EFC) No. 17(16) may need to be
assessed for certain HPHT wells.
Fortunately, exposure times for CRAs to the fluids listed in
Section 6.3 of EFC No. 17 are generally short. Therefore,
accelerated tests are not required and the duration of corrosion
and cracking tests may approximate the anticipated service
exposure. However, it should be recognized that these fluids
may be used in combination or sequentially; and highly
aggressive produced species may be present in significant
concentrations, e.g., H2S in low pH acid returns. Therefore,
care should be taken when defining worst-case exposure
scenarios. As noted in European Federation of Corrosion
(EFC) No. 17, the consequences of ignoring potential
incompatibilities of CRAs with non-produced fluids and
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2.
3.
4.
Temperature,
Corrosion damage
operations,
initiated
during
acidizing
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3.
References
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19.
Figure 1. Existing HPHT and ultra-HPHT fields. After Baird, et. al.(1).
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Figure 2. Guidelines for materials selection for sour HPHT and ultra-HPHT wells. Published with permission of DMV.
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Figure 3. Guidelines for tubulars selection for HPHT and ultra-HPHT wells. Published with permission of Haynes.
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Figure 4. Additional Guidelines for selection of CRAs for HPHT wells. Published with permission of JFE Steel.
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Figure 5. Guidelines for tubulars selection for HPHT and ultra-HPHT wells. Published with permission of Sumitomo Metals.
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START
version 6.1
Obtain
Representative
Material
INDEX to Guide
Note
Alloy Class
Martensitic Stainless Steel
Super Martensitic Stainless Steel
Duplex Stainless Steel
Austenitic Stainless Steel
Nickel Base Alloys
Service
Primary Test
Temperature
Other Test
Temperature
Room Temp.
Room Temp.
190-220F (88-104C)
Maximum operating temp.
Maximum operating temp.
Note
Acidizing &
Completion
Production
Note
PASS
C-ring
Note
C-Ring or
4.p.b
PASS
SSRT
Note
PASS
Note
FAIL
FAIL
Is alloy
>13Cr
YES
FAIL
RSRT
Note
PASS
NO
FAIL
Alloy Suitable
Figure 6. Example of a proprietary CRA test protocol. After Rhodes, et.al.(19).
Contact
Specialist
Note
YES