Chemical Bonding

3.1 a) describe ionic bonding, as in sodium chloride, magnesium oxide and

calcium fluoride, including the use of dot-and-cross diagrams
Positive ions formed when an atom loses one or more electrons.
Metal atoms usually lose electrons and form positive ions.
Negative ions formed when an atom gains one or more electrons.
Non-metal atoms usually gain electrons and form positive ions.
Strong force of attraction results in ionic bond. (electrocovalent
bond), very strong.
Sodium chloride (NaCl)

Magnesium oxide (MgO)

Calcium chloride (CaCl2)

3.2 a) describe, including the use of dot-and-cross diagrams:

(i) covalent bonding, in molecules such as hydrogen, oxygen, chlorine,
hydrogen chloride, carbon dioxide, methane, ethane
Two non-metals combine, share one or more pair of electrons. Form
single covalent bond (bond pair).
Non-bonding electrons are lone pairs.
Not all electrons around central atom have noble gas config. For
example, boron tetrafluoride (BF3) has 6 electrons, sulfur
hexafluoride (SF6) has 12 electrons around central atom.

Chlorine (Cl2)

Methane (CH4)

Water (H2O)

Hydrogen chloride (HCl)

3.2 b) (ii) co-ordinate (dative covalent) bonding, such as in the formation

of the ammonium ion and in the Al 2Cl 6 molecule
Formed when one atom provides both electrons needed for a
covalent bond.
One atom must have a lone pair of electrons, the other must have
an unfilled orbital to accept lone pair (must be electron deficient.)
Represented by an arrow pointing away from lone pair that forms
the bond.
Ammonium ion (NH4+). Hydrogen ion electron deficient, has space
for two electrons. Nitrogen has a lone pair of electrons.

Aluminium chloride. AlCl3 is electron deficient, needs to electrons to

complete outer shell of Al atom. At low temps, AlCl 3 molecules
combine to form Al2Cl6. Lone pairs from Cl form dative bond with Al.

3.2 b) describe covalent bonding in terms of orbital overlap, giving and

bonds, including the concept of hybridisation to form sp, sp2 and sp3
orbitals.
Formation of covalent bond atomic orbitals overlap to form
combined orbital, which contains two electrons.
Combined orbital molecular orbital.
Amount of overlap of atomic orbitals determines strength of bond.
P atomic orbitals can overlap linearly to form covalent bonds. They
become modified to include some s orbital character.
Sp3 hybrids: 0.25 s character, 0.75 p character.
Sp2 hybrids: 1 s orbital, 2 p orbitals.
Sp hybrids: 1 s orbital, 1 p orbital.
When one s orbital and one p orbital are hybridised, hybrids are sp
orbitals.
When hybridized orbitals overlap linearly, bond is sigma bond.
When two p orbitals overlap sideways forms pi bond.
3.2 c) explain the shapes of, and bond angles in, molecules by using the
qualitative model of electron-pair repulsion (including lone pairs), using as
simple examples: BF3 (trigonal), CO2 (linear), CH4 (tetrahedral), NH3
(pyramidal), H2O (non-linear), SF6 (octahedral), PF5 (trigonal bipyramidal)
Electron-pair repulsion theory
Electrons negative, will repel each other when in proximity.
Shape and bond angles depends on number of lone pairs.
Lone pairs have more concentrated electron charge cloud than
bonding pairs of electrons.
Cloud charges wider, slightly closer to nucleus.
Order of repulsion: lone-lone > lone-bond > bond-bond
3.3 a) describe hydrogen bonding, using ammonia and water as simple
examples of molecules containing NH and OH groups
Strongest type of intermolecular force.
One molecule must contain hydrogen, the other must contain F, O
or N with lone pairs.
When hydrogen atom covalently bonded to very electronegative
atom, bond is very highly polarized. (H +, NOF -)
Water can form two hydrogen bonds (O has two lone pairs.)
Ammonia less hydrogen bonded as it only has one lone pair.
3.3 b) understand, in simple terms, the concept of electronegativity and
apply it to explain the properties of molecules such as bond polarity, the
dipole moments of molecules and the behaviour of oxides with water
Electronegativity
Definition: the ability of an atom, covalently bonded to another
atom, to attract the bond pair of electrons towards itself.
Electronegativity increases across a period and decreases down a
group.

Br < Cl < N < O < F

When electronegativity values of two atoms forming covalent bonds
are the same, molecule is non-polar.
When covalent bond formed between atoms has difference in
electronegativity, the more electronegative atoms pulls the
electrons towards it.
Centre of positive charge does not coincide with the center of
negative charge.
Electron distribution is asymmetric.
Two atoms are partially charged.
Bond is polar.
Difference in electronegativity values of atoms in a covalent bond
increases, bond becomes more polar.
Some molecules contain polar bonds but have no overall polarity
polar bonds are arranged so that charges are cancelled out. (e.g
CCl4).

Polarity and chemical reactivity

Bond polarity influenced chemical reactivity.
Many chemical reactions are started by a reagent attacking one of
the electrically charged ends of a polar molecule.
Example: C2H5Cl is more reactive than C2H6 because OH- ions can
attack delta-positive carbon atom. This only occurs because C-Cl
bond is polar.
This explains why C-H bond is unreactive (it is non-polar.)
Bond length
Greater force of attraction between electrons and the nuclei pulls
atoms closer together.
Results in a stronger bond.
Bond strength can influence the reactivity of a compound.
Stronger bond results in less reactivity.
3.3 d) describe intermolecular forces (van der Waals forces), based on
permanent and induced dipoles, as in, for example, CHCl 3(l); Br2(l) and
the liquid Group 18 elements
In a non-polar molecule, often more of charge cloud is on one side
rather than the other, so for a moment one side has a more
negative charge.
Temporary dipole is set up.
There are therefore forces of attraction between the + end and the
end.
They are always temporary because electron clouds are always
moving.
VDW forces increase with increasing number of protons and
electrons and increasing number of contact points between
molecules
Bp of noble gases increases as number of electrons increase, as
VDW forces increase with increasing number of electrons.
VDW forces between individual atoms are small. Total VDW forces
between long non-polar molecules are much larger.

Br2 is liquid at RTP. VDW forces are keeping the bromine molecules
together at room temperatures.
In some molecules, dipole is permanent. (Polar molecules)
Forces between two molecules having permanent dipoles
permanent dipole-dipole forces.
The attractive force between the S+ charge and the S- charge on a
neighboring molecule causes a weak attractive force between
molecules.

3.5 a) describe, interpret and predict the effect of different types of

bonding (ionic bonding, covalent bonding, hydrogen bonding, other
intermolecular interactions, metallic bonding) on the physical properties of
substances
Ionic compounds
Solids at RTP because strong electrostatic forces hold positive and
negative ions together.
The ions are regularly arranged in a lattice, with opposite charges
close next to each other.
Have high melting points and boiling points and high enthalpy
changes of vaporization.
Do not conduct electricity in solid state, but do in liquid or molten
state because ions are mobile.
Are soluble in water. Water molecules are polar and are attracted to
ions on surface of the ionic solid.
These are ion-dipole attractions.
Metals
Are solids (except for mercury)
Most metals have high melting points and boiling points and high
enthalpy changes of vaporization.
Takes much energy to overcome strong attractive force between
positive cations and sea of delocalized electrons.
Do not dissolve in water.
Conduct electricity both when solid and when molten.
Delocalized electrons are mobile.
Covalent compounds
Covalently bonded substances with a simple molecular structure are
usually liquids or gases.
Forces between molecules are weak.
Does not take more energy to overcome these intermolecular
forces, so these substances have low melting and boiling points and
low enthalpy changes of vaporization.
Covalently bonded substances are insoluble in water and non-polar,
because molecules are not attracted to them so they are insoluble.
Some are soluble in water because they can form hydrogen bonds
with water.
Some covalently bonded substances react with water rather than
dissolving in it.

Covalently bonded substances with a simple molecular structure to

not conduct electricity. They neither have ions nor mobile electrons.

Hydrogen bonding
Hydrogen bonded substances have high melting and boiling points.
water has a much higher enthalpy change of vaporization and
boiling point than expected due to hydrogen bonding.
Most solids are denser than their liquids because molecules are
more packed.
However, in ice, there is a 3D hydrogen-bonded network of water
molecules.
Produces a rigid lattice where each oxygen atom is surrounded by a
tetrahedron of hydrogen atoms, allows water molecules to be
slightly further apart than in liquid.

States of Matter
4.1 a) state the basic assumptions of the kinetic theory as applied to an
ideal gas
gases move randomly and rapidly
volume of molecules is negligible
no forces of attraction between molecules
all collisions are perfectly elastic.
Temperature of gas is related to the average kinetic energy of the
molecules.
If a theoretical gas fits this description, it is an ideal gas.
However the gases we encounter are real gases.
4.1 b) explain qualitatively in terms of intermolecular forces and molecular
size:
(i) the conditions necessary for a gas to approach ideal behaviour
The volume a gas occupies depends on: its pressure in pascals (Pa)
and its temperature (K)
Gases behave more like an ideal gas at higher temperature and
lower pressure, as potential energy due to intermolecular forces
becomes less significant compared with the particles kinetic energy.
An ideal gas will have a volume that varies in proportion to its
temperature and exactly in inverse proportion to its pressure.
(ii) the limitations of ideality at very high pressures and very low
temperatures
There is not zero attraction between molecules
The volumes of molecules are not negligible.
These differences are easy to notice at high pressures and low
temps.
At high pressures and low temps, the molecules are close together,
without negligible volume, with forces between them.

4.1 c) state and use the general gas equation pV = nRT in calculations,
including the determination of Mr
General gas equation: pV=nRT
P= pressure (Pa), V=volume of gas in cubic metres (cm3), n=moles,
R=8.31 JK-1mol-1, T= temperature change (K)
We can find Mr using the general gas equation, because n=m/M
4.2 a) describe, using a kinetic-molecular model, the liquid state, melting,
vaporisation, vapour pressure.
Behaviour of liquids
When a solid is heated, energy transferred to the solid makes the
particles vibrate more frequently.
Forces of attraction between particles weaken.
Solid changes to a liquid if temp is high enough.
When liquid is cooled, kinetic energy is lost, so increase forces of
attraction.
They stop sliding past each other when temperature is too low, form
solid.
Vaporization
When we heat a liquid, the energy transferred to liquid makes the
particles move faster
Greater forces of attraction between particles weaken.
Particles with most energy escape first as a gas.
Liquid boils at boiling point.
Enthalpy change of vaporization: the energy change required to
change one mole of a liquid to one mole of a gas.
When water vapour cools, particles lose kinetic energy and it
liquefies.
This is condensation.
4.3 a) describe, in simple terms, the lattice structure of a crystalline solid
which is:
(i) ionic, as in sodium chloride, magnesium oxide
Ionic lattice have 3D arrangement of alternating positive and
negative ions.
They are hard, brittle, have high mp and bp, are soluble in water
and conduct electricity in solution or when molten.
(ii) simple molecular, as in iodine and the fullerene allotropes of carbon
(C60 and nanotubes only)
Form crystals due to regular packing of molecules in a lattice
structure.
Distance between nuclei of neighboring iodine molecules is greater
than the distance between the nuclei within the iodine molecule
because forces between molecules are weak VDW forces.
Fullerenes: contain rings of carbon arranged in hexagons and
contain many rings of carbon in pentagons.

(iii) giant molecular, as in silicon(IV) oxide and the graphite, diamond and
graphene allotropes of carbon
Silicon (IV) oxide: each silicon atom bonded to 4 oxygen atoms.
Each oxygen atom bonded to 2 silicon atoms.
Graphene: single isolated layer of graphite. Can be distorted. Most
chemically reactive form of carbon. Very strong.
Graphite: carbon atoms arranged in planar layers. Have a cloud of
delocalized electrons above and below the plane of the carbon
rings.
Diamond: each carbon atom forms four covalent bonds with other
carbon atoms. Have giant crystalline structure.
(v) metallic, as in copper
Arranged in metallic lattice
Have high electrostatic forces between cations and sea of electrons
Are ductile, malleable, etc because layers can slide over each other
and electrostatic bonds hold them together.
Sea of electrons can carry heat and charge so is good conductor.

Enthalpy
5.1 a) explain that chemical reactions are accompanied by energy
changes, principally in the form of heat energy; the energy changes can
be exothermic (H is negative) or endothermic (H is positive)
When there is a chemical reaction, there is an energy change. May
be heat, light, sound, or electrical energy.
Exothermic reactions release energy to surroundings, temperature
of outside increases. (eg combustion of fuels, oxidation of
carbohydrates)
Endothermic reactions absorb energy from surroundings,
temperature of outside decreases. (eg decomposition of limestone,
photosynthesis)
5.1 b) explain and use the terms:
(i) enthalpy change of reaction and standard conditions, with particular
reference to: formation, combustion, hydration, solution, neutralisation,
atomisation
All enthalpy changes occur under standard conditions.
Standard enthalpy of formation
When one mole of a compound is formed from its elements under
standard conditions and all reactants and products in their standard
states.
Formation of any element is zero.

Standard enthalpy of combustion

When one mole of a substance is burnt in excess oxygen under
standard conditions, with reactants and products in their standard
states.
Always exothermic.
Standard enthalpy of neutralization
when one mole of water is formed by the reaction of an acid with an
alkali under standard conditions.
Standard enthalpy of solution
when one mole of solute is dissolved in a solvent to form an
infinitely dilute solution under standard conditions
standard enthalpy of atomization
when one mole of gaseous atoms is formed from its element under
standard conditions
standard enthalpy of hydration
when one mole of a hydrated salt is formed from one mole of the
anhydrous salt under standard conditions.
(ii) bond energy (H positive, i.e. bond breaking)
enthalpy changes are due to the breaking and forming of bonds.
If the energy required to break bonds is less than the energy
released when new bonds are formed, the reaction releases energy
and is exothermic.
If energy needed to break bonds is more than energy released when
new bonds are formed, then reaction absorbs energy and is
endothermic.
The amount of energy required to break a bond is the bond energy.
5.2 a) apply Hess Law to construct simple energy cycles, and carry out
calculations involving such cycles and relevant energy terms, with
particular reference to:
(i) determining enthalpy changes that cannot be found by direct
experiment, e.g. an enthalpy change of formation from enthalpy changes
of combustion
Hesss Law: the total enthalpy change in a chemical reaction is
independent of the route by which the chemical reaction takes
place as long as the initial and final conditions are the same.

Enthalpy change of formation from enthalpy changes of combustion

We use the enthalpy changes of combustion of the reactants and
products to calculate the enthalpy change of formation.

To calculate enthalpy change of formation: write equation for

enthalpy cange of formation at top, at oxygen to both sides to
balance combustion reactions
Draw cycle with combustion products at the bottom.
Draw in all arrows
Apply Hesss law.

Enthalpy change of reaction from enthalpy change of formation

Write balanced equation at the top
Draw cycle with elements at bottom
Draw in all arrows
Apply Hesss law.

(ii) average bond energies

Bond breaking bond forming.
5.2 b) construct and interpret a reaction pathway diagram, in terms of the
enthalpy change of the reaction and of the activation energy