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a r t i c l e
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Article history:
Received 12 August 2010
Received in revised form 27 September 2010
Accepted 28 September 2010
Available online 25 October 2010
Keywords:
Agglomeration
Fluidized bed
Gasication
Palm empty fruit bunch
Renewable energy
a b s t r a c t
Gasication of palm empty fruit bunch (EFB) was investigated in a pilot-scale air-blown uidized bed.
The effect of bed temperature (6501050 C) on gasication performance was studied. To explore the
potential of EFB, the gasication results were compared to that of sawdust. Results showed that
maximum heating values (HHV) of 5.37 and 5.88 (MJ/Nm3), dry gas yield of 2.04 and 2.0 (Nm3/kg), carbon
conversion of 93% and 85 % and cold gas efciency of 72% and 71 % were obtained for EFB and sawdust at
the temperature of 1050 C and ER of 0.25. However, it was realized that agglomeration was the major
issue in EFB gasication at high temperatures. To prevent the bed agglomeration, EFB gasication was
performed at temperature of 770 20 C while the ER was varied from 0.17 to 0.32. Maximum HHV of
4.53 was obtained at ER of 0.21 where no agglomeration was observed.
2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Nowadays, climate change mitigation and energy security are
driving the worldwide efforts to utilize biomass for renewable
and sustainable fuel and energy development. The growing demand for clean renewable energy and reducing dependency on
oil and fossil fuels promote the research for development of environmentally benign and efcient technologies which converts
biomass to bioenergy and biofuels.
In Malaysia, palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) is the dominant agricultural crop. Currently, more than 3.88 million hectares of land
in Malaysia are under palm cultivation (Idris et al., 2010). Indonesia and Malaysia as the worlds leaders in palm oil industry provide
86% of the universal palm oil demand. However, palm cultivation is
not limited to these countries and its plantation has been established in the worlds most diverse tropical regions including
Colombia and Brazil (De Souza et al., 2010). Palm as the main
contributor to biomass resources in Malaysia has attracted considerable attention to fulll the both traditional and renewable energy
demands in a sustainable manner.
At present, around 368 palm mills are operating in Malaysia
that produce signicant amount of lignocellulosic biomass including palm empty fruit bunches (53%), palm mesocarp bre (32%)
and palm kernel shell (15%) (Baharaddin et al., 2009). Empty fruit
bunch (EFB) which is the empty husks left over after oil extraction
from palm fruit, is generated as a waste material from palm oil
Corresponding author. Tel.: +60 4 593 7788; fax: +60 4 594 1025.
E-mail address: mezainal@eng.usm.my (Z.A. Zainal).
0960-8524/$ - see front matter 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2010.09.101
2069
conversion efciency (Warnecke, 2000; Xu et al., 2009). The reduced tar content and improved quality producer gas obtained in
uidized beds originates from the implemented bed materials in
uidized beds which act as heat transfer medium and tar cracking
catalysis (Alauddin et al., 2010; Schuster et al., 2001).
Various gasifying agents including air, steam, oxygen-steam,
airsteam, O2-enriched air and oxygenairsteam have been used
in uidized biomass gasication (Campoy et al., 2009). Although
use of oxygen or steam as the gasifying agent improves the quality
of producer gas in terms of heating value or H2 content, however
the high cost and energy consumption of O2 or steam generation
makes the process unfavorable for industrial applications
(Alauddin et al., 2010; Shen et al., 2008). Use of air-blown bubbling
uidized bed gasier to generate producer gas seems to be a suitable choice which improves the feasibility of the gasication process for industrial plants.
Although uidized bed gasication has been known as one of
the mature technologies to generate energy from coal, however
its application to biomass has faced frequent operational problems.
Agglomeration of the bed materials is one of the main issues involved in biomass uidized bed gasication. Lignocellulosic
biomass feedstock, especially those containing potassium, sodium
and alkali earth metals along with chlorine and sulfur in lesser extent create low melting ash within the bed (Fryda et al., 2008).
Such phenomenon forms sticky and glassy melt which causes the
agglomeration of the bed material. The growth of agglomerates
formed within the bed material can reduce the uidization tendency or even cease it and thus create serious problem (Bartels
et al., 2008).
The high potential of palm solid biomass residues to generate
fuel and energy boosts the importance of gasication plants
establishment in Malaysia. So far, too few researches have been
published regarding gasication of EFB in uidized beds. Current
research aims to investigate the gasication of EFB in a pilotscale air-blown bubbling uidized bed gasier. The effect of
various inuential process parameters on the quality of the producer gas was examined. The results obtained from gasication
of EFB were compared to that of sawdust as a common feedstock
for biomass gasication to explore the potential of this local biomass waste for future exploitations. The agglomeration behavior
observed in EFB gasication was studied through EFB ash analysis and some practical solutions to prevent this issue were
proposed.
2. Method
2.1. Feedstock materials and characterization
Palm empty fruit bunch (EFB) was obtained from a local palm
mill factory, Nibong Tebal. The fresh EFB with high moisture content of 4560 % was open-air dried at the ambient temperature
of 2830 C for 2 days. The dried feed was then crushed and ground
into the bers with a mean length of 26 mm. Sawdust with almost the same particle size as that of EFB was supplied from commercial sources.
To have a knowledge on the empirical formula and quantitative
energy content of the biomass fuels, ultimate and proximate analysis were carried out on EFB and sawdust samples. The results obtained are presented in Table 1. The lower HHV of EFB in
comparison to sawdust is probably attributed to the higher ash
content of EFB which counts for the inert content of the biomass.
Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was carried out on EFB and
sawdust sample using a TG analyzer model STDQ 600 at a heating
rate of 10 C/min under an air ow of 10 mL/min. A 15 mg of the
biomass sample was used in each TG experiment.
Table 1
Ultimate and proximate analysis of the biomass feedstock.
Proximate analysis (wt.%)
EFB
Sawdust
Moisture
Volatiles
Ash
Fixed carbon
HHV, MJ/kg (dry basis)
7.80
79.34
4.50
8.36
15.22
14.60
76.10
0.40
8.90
17.12
43.52
5.72
1.20
0.66
48.90
CH1.46O0.84
4.84
44.96
5.83
3.10
0.61
45.50
CH1.55O0.76
5.34
2070
Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the pilot-scale BFB gasier: 1, Mass ow controller; 2, blower; 3, variable frequency driver; 4, feeding hopper; 5, water cooled screw
feeding system; 6, uidized bed reactor; 7, particle holder; 8, cyclone; 9, temperature monitoring unit; 10, condensers; 11, ber lter; 12, silica gel; 13, gas charomatography.
showed this peak at 318 C. The third peak at 422 and 450 C probably assigned to the decomposition of lignin in EFB and sawdust,
respectively. However, the intensity of this peak for EFB was not
as strong as sawdust which originates from the higher lignin content of sawdust in comparison to EFB. Such different behavior of
various lignocellulosic biomass in DTG analysis was also reported
by other researchers (Idris et al., 2010). No obvious weight loss
was observed beyond 422 and 450 C for EFB and sawdust as indicated by zero value of DTG.
DSC analysis gives an insight to the enthalpy change of
biomass samples in thermogravimetric process. From the DSC
thermogram, three decomposition stages were clearly observed
for both samples. The endothermic peaks at around 59 C correspond to the loss of water. Besides, two exothermic wide peaks
are clearly visualized for each sample. The strong exothermic
peak centered at 310 C is probably attributed to the decomposition of lignocellulosic compound and volatile matter to form char
in EFB sample. This peak appeared with a less intensity at 323 C
for sawdust. At temperatures above 430 C, the oxidative degradation of the samples occurred in which biomass directly combust to oxidation product mainly COx and H2O (Muradov et al.,
2010). All these exothermic signals of degradation correlate with
the mass loss of the samples as depicted by TG curves. The exothermic peaks of DSC associated with a reduction in the heat
capacity of the samples were probably due to the structural degradation and evolution of gas products such as CO2 and CO during
the oxidation process (Mall et al., 2006).
3.2. Effect of bed temperature
Bed temperature is one of the most important parameters
affecting all the chemical reactions involved in the gasication process. The effect of this parameter on the gasication performance
was studied in the range of 6501050 C with and increment of
100 C while the air ow rate was varied from 7.5 to 9.5 m3/h
and the feeding rate was in the range of 611 kg/h. Fig. 3(a) and
(b) show the variation of the producer gas composition with respect to the reaction temperature for EFB and sawdust. Such variations in the composition of the producer gas can be easily explained
by the improvement of the following endothermic reactions
2071
Fig. 2. TG/DTG and DSC analysis of (a) EFB and (b) sawdust using air at heating rate of 10 C/min.
CH4 H2 O $ CO 3H2
CH4 H2 O $ CO2 4H2
Cn Hm tar $ m=2H2 nC
D 206kJ=mol
D 165kJ=mol
D 247kJ=mol
1
2
3
Fig. 3 (a) and (b) clearly depict that increasing the bed temperature favored hydrogen production. As thermodynamically predicted, increasing the temperature from 650 to 1050 C promoted
the volume fraction of hydrogen from 7.3% to 12.4 % for EFB
whereas the H2 content in sawdust gasication improved from
6.1% to 19.5 %. Such remarkable increase in the H2 concentration
of the producer gas at elevated temperatures may originate from
promotion of endothermic methane steam reforming (1), (2) and
dry reforming reactions (3). Tar reforming and cracking reactions
can also lead to an increase in H2 and other combustible gas levels
due to the following reactions:
DH > 0
DH > 0
DH > 0
4
5
6
Besides, endothermic char gasication promotes at high temperatures that contribute to the high concentration of H2 through
endothermic watergas and Boudouard reactions as follow:
C H2 O $ CO H2
C CO2 $ 2CO
DH 131kJ=mol
DH 172kJ=mol
7
8
At low temperature, hydrogen evolution was probably controlled by exothermic watergas shift reaction:
CO H2 O $ CO2 H2
DH 41:98kJ=mol
2072
reforming reactions (1), (2) and methane dry reforming (3). Thus,
it seems there was a balance between CH4 production and consumption rate that kept the CH4 level constant even at elevated
temperatures.
10
Fig. 4 (a) and (b) illustrate the effect of bed temperature on HHV
of the producer gas for EFB and sawdust. An increase of bed temperature from 650 to 1050 C signicantly improved the gas HHV
from 3.27 to 5.37 (MJ/Nm3) for EFB and 3.86 to 5.87 (MJ/Nm3)
for sawdust. As explained earlier, high temperatures enhance the
evolution of combustible gases especially H2 and CO which in turn
results in an increase in HHV of the producer gas.
The EFB and sawdust samples contained 1.2% and 3.1% nitrogen,
respectively, thus the relatively low nitrogen content of the biomass samples was ignored while calculating the dry gas yield
and just N2 content of air was considered in material balance to
Fig. 3. Effect of bed temperature on producer gas composition for (a) EFB and (b)
sawdust (ER = 0.25; Hbed = 17 cm).
Fig. 4. Effect of bed temperature on gasication output performance for (a) EFB and
(b) sawdust (ER = 0.25; Hbed = 17 cm).
obtain the dry gas yield based on ash-free biomass, Y (Xiao et al.,
2006):
Q a 0:79
W b 1 X ash N2 %
11
gC
12
Hg Y
%
Hb
13
2073
K2 O Na2 O
> 1 and
SiO2
K2 O Na2 O
> 0:34
HHV
Gasification onset
Fig. 5. The temperature prole along the agglomeration (ER = 0.25; Hbed = 17 cm).
14
2074
The biomass sintering tendency is severe when the fuel constituents exceed these boundary conditions.
The ash chemical compositions of the two implemented
biomass and a mixture of EFB ash and sand which was formed at
1050 C are summarized in Table 2. The XRF analysis of the samples clearly shows the high content of K2O in EFB (44%) in comparison to sawdust (4.5%) which was probably the main cause of
agglomeration. Besides both of the mentioned boundary conditions in the above correlation are extremely exceeded for EFB
which is an indication of severe sintering within the bed. The
chemical composition of the agglomerated silica sand covered with
EFB ash was also determined using XRF analysis. The result of the
analysis is presented in Table 2. Generally, SiO2 is the dominant
compound in silica sand which constitutes more than 95% of the
sand structure, but high K2O content (26%) of the agglomerated
sand further conrms the damaging effect of this compound and
formation of K2OSiO2 eutectics inside the bed. Chlorine (Cl) has
also been reported as one of the ash constituent which plays a
key role on the agglomeration development. This element along
with potassium creates KCl which is stable at high temperatures
and improves potassium devolatalization. Such minerals go
through phase transformation and form y ash particles that can
react with the bed materials and cause agglomeration within the
bed (Arvelakis et al., 2003). The XRF analysis of the EFB ash revealed the presence of 5.30% Cl in this sample while this element
constitutes only 0.19% of sawdust ash. Thus the higher Cl content
of EFB in comparison to sawdust may also boost the sintering effect
of this biomass. On the contrary, sawdust contains high level of
MgO (24%) which is effective to reduce agglomeration. MgO has
been found as an effective compound to alter the low temperature
eutectics of feedstock (Paisley, 2001). Agglomeration was not observed in sawdust gasication unless the bed temperature was
raised to above 1000 C.
To date, numerous investigations have been carried out on bed
agglomeration in uidized bed. However, this phenomenon is not
so far adequately understood as it is originated from some complex
interactions between various compounds. It cannot be simply related to the ash components of the fuel or bed material. But several
alternatives have been proposed in the literatures which effectively reduce the agglomeration tendency:
3.2.2.2. Co-ring of the biomass with other fuel. The biomass with
high alkali content can be co-red with another fuel which contains less alkali or is rich in transition metals. Thus, the overall alkali content of the mixed fuel is reduced or a eutectic mixture with
high melting point is created. For example, co-ring of biomass
with kinds of coal whose ash contains high amount of sulfur
Table 2
XRF analysis of biomass ash samples.
Ash basis (wt.%)
Na2O
MgO
Al2O3
SiO2
P2O5
SO3
Cl
K2O
CaO
TiO2
MnO
Fe2O3
NiO
CuO
ZnO
Br
Rb2O
SrO
ZrO2
BaO
PbO
EFB
Sawdust
0.55
4.80
0.97
27.0
3.60
2.70
5.30
44.0
8.00
0.08
0.11
3.00
0.01
0.039
0.092
0.018
0.12
0.03
Trace
Trace
0.41
24
4.80
51
0.33
1.70
0.19
4.50
4.20
6.70
0.049
0.88
Trace
Trace
0.11
0.017
0.029
0.024
0.66
Trace
0.30
3.30
2.30
55
2.50
0.56
0.14
26
6.30
0.085
0.11
3.10
Trace
0.037
0.016
0.058
0.026
0.012
Fig. 6. Effect of ER on (a) producer gas composition of EFB (b) EFB gasication
output parameters (c) product distribution of EFB (T = 770 20 C; Uair = 0.3 m/s;
Hbed = 17 cm).
2075
the range of 611 kg/h. Fig. 6(a) shows the variation of the producer gas composition with respect to ER. As observed in this
Fig., increasing the ER from 0.17 to 0.21 improved the CO, CH4
and CO2 level of the producer gas and then further increase of ER
to 0.32 hindered CO and CH4 production while CO2 level continuously increased. At high ERs, more air is supplied into the gasier
and high degree of combustion occurs that improves char burning
to produce CO2 at the expense of combustible gases such as CO, H2
and CH4. It was realized that the ER of 0.21was the optimum value
in the studied range where the composition of CO, H2, CH4 and CO2
were 16.62%, 5.55%, 4.31% and 19.24%, respectively.
Fig. 6(b) presents the effect of ER on the producer gas HHV, dry
gas yield, carbon conversion and cold gas efciency. As expected,
the maximum HHV of 4.53 was achieved at ER of 0.21 which corresponds to the high content of combustible gases especially CH4.
Increasing the ER to beyond 0.21 was disadvantageous for gas
HHV due to the dilution of the producer gas by N2 which in turn
results in the gas low energy content. However, an increasing trend
was observed for carbon conversion, dry gas yield and cold gas efciency along with raising the ER. The maximum carbon conversion
efciency of 71.3%, cold gas efciency of 39% and dry gas yield of
1.76 (Nm3/kg) was obtained at ER of 0.32.
Generally, selection of the suitable ER is somehow depended on
the desired properties of the producer gas. A product gas with high
heating value is usually obtained at low ER, which was 0.21 in the
current study. In cases where low tar content of producer gas is desired, ER should be increased to about 0.30.4 to lower the tar content of the gas.
The results of EFB gasication were compared to the ndings of
other researchers on biomass gasication in air-blown uidized
beds. The result of such survey is projected in Table 3. Although,
the obtained result from EFB gasication was not so outstanding
in comparison to other common biomass, however it demonstrates
the potential of this locally available biomass for gasication
purposes.
3.3. Effect of ER
3.4. Product Distribution and Mass Balance
To study the effect of ER on gasication performance, this
parameter was varied in the range of 0.170.32 while the bed temperature was around 770 20 C. To achieve the selected ERs, the
air ow rate was kept at a constant value to have a small effect
on gas residence time and the biomass ow rate was changed in
Mass balance was performed for the input and output streams
of the gasication process, based on the results obtained in Section 3.3. The process input stream consisted of dry biomass fuel,
dry air and water (moisture) naturally presented in the biomass
Table 3
A comparison of the results on biomass gasication in air-blown uidized beds.
Feedstock
Bed temperature
Bed material
References
EFB
T: 770 20 C
Silica sand
(Current study)
Rice husk
T: 600830 C
Alumina sand
Pine sawdust
T: 790800 C
Silica sand
Wood chips
Olive kernel
Rice husk
Pine sawdust + coal + plastic waste
T:
T:
T:
T:
Silica sand
Olivine
na
Dolomite
Wood sawdust
T: 750 C
Silica sand
Cedar wood
T: 700 C
Rh/CeO2/SiO2
Coconut coir
T: 900 C
na
733 C
750 C
700800 C
850 C
2076
and air. While, for the output stream dry producer gas, water
(moisture) presented in the gas, char and tar were considered.
Moisture content of the air was determined using psychrometric
chart. In order to estimate the moisture content of the producer
gas, it was assumed that the gas was saturated with water vapor
[Stoichiometric, mass, energy]. Thus, the saturated vapor pressure
of water at dry bulb temperature and pressure of 1 atm was used to
determine the water content of the outlet gas stream. The product
distribution as a function of ER is presented in Fig. 6(c). The total
mass balance was almost between 96% and 98 % due to the output
experimental losses.
4. Conclusions
EFB gasication was conducted in an air-blown uidized bed.
The gasication performance was and the EFB gasication results
were compared to that of sawdust. The results explored the great
ability of EFB for gasication purposes. However, the agglomeration evolved at high temperatures was the main concern in EFB
gasication, while such behavior was not observed in sawdust gasication. As a solution, the bed temperature was lowered in EFB
gasication thus the agglomeration was prevented within the
bed. The results achieved in EFB gasication were comparable to
sawdust which demonstrates the ability of this locally available
biomass for bioenergy production plants.
Acknowledgements
The nancial support provided by Universiti Sains Malaysia
(School of Mechanical Engineering) as a research grant (No.
8032045) is gratefully acknowledged.
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