Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Table of Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
4.4
5.
References......................................................................................................................................48
Web sites..................................................................................................................................48
The development of coiled tubing as a well service tool as know today dates
back to the early 1960's, and it has become a key component of many well service and
workover applications. While well service/workover applications still account for more
than 75% of coiled tubing use, technical advancements have increased the utilization of
coiled tubing in both drilling and completion applications.
The ability to perform remedial work on a live well was the key driving force
associated with the development of coiled tubing. To accomplish this feature, three
technical challenges had to be overcome:
a continuous conduit capable of being inserted into the wellbore (CT string);
a means of running and retrieving the coiled tubing string into or out of the
wellbore while under pressure (injector head);
a device capable of providing a dynamic seal around the tubing string
(stripper or pack-off device).
In the followings, the history of these developments is summarised, concluding
with a brief overview of the present status of the CT industry.
1.2.1. Coiled tubing origins and early equipment:
Prior to the Allied invasion in 1944, British engineers developed and produced
very long, continuous pipelines for transporting fuel from England to the European
Continent to supply the Allied armies. The project was named operation "PLUTO" (Pipe
Lines Under The Ocean), and involved the fabrication and laying of several pipelines
across the English Channel. The successful fabrication and spooling of continuous
4
flexible pipeline provided the foundation for additional technical developments that
eventually led to the tubing strings used today by the coiled tubing industry.
In 1962, the California Oil Company and Bowen Tools developed the first fully
functional coiled tubing unit, for the purpose of washing out sand bridges in wells.
The first injector heads operated on the principle of two vertical, contra-rotating
chains, a design still used in the majority of coiled tubing units today. The stripper was a
simple, annular-type sealing device that could be hydraulically activated to seal around
the tubing at relatively low wellhead pressures. The tubing string used for the initial trials
was fabricated by butt-welding 50 ft. (15.24 m) sections of 13/8 in. (34.925 mm) OD pipe
into a 15,000 ft. (4572 m) string and spooling it onto a reel with a 9 ft. (2.75 m) diameter
core.
1.2.2. Evolution of coiled tubing equipment:
Throughout the late 1960's and into the 1970's, both Bowen Tools and Brown Oil
Tools continued to improve their designs to accommodate coiled tubing up to 1 in. (25.4
mm) OD. By the mid-1970's, more than 200 of the original-design CT units were in
service. By the late 1970's, several new equipment manufacturing companies (Uni-Flex
Inc., Otis Engineering, and Hydra Rig Inc.) also started influencing improved injector
head design.
Coiled tubing strings were also undergoing significant improvements during this
period. Through the late 1960's, CT services were dominated by tubing sizes of 1 in.
(25.4 mm) and less, and relatively short string lengths. Tubing diameter and length were
limited by the tubing mechanical properties and currently available manufacturing
processes.
Early coiled tubing operations suffered many failures due to the inconsistent
quality of the tubing and the numerous butt welds required to produce a suitable string
length. However, by the late 1960's, tubing strings were being manufactured in much
longer lengths with fewer butt welds per string. During this time, steel properties also
improved. These changes and the associated improvement in CT string reliability
contributed significantly to the continued growth of the coiled tubing industry.
Today it is common for coiled tubing strings to be constructed from continuously
milled tubing that can be manufactured with no butt welds. In addition, CT diameters
have continued to grow to keep pace with the strength requirements associated with
new market applications. During the 1980s, coiled tubing materials and strings
improved significantly, and the maximum practical CT size increased to 1.75 in. (44.45
mm) and then further to 3.50 in. (88.9 mm) in the 1990s.
It is clear the coiled tubing industry has continued to make technical
advancements that have opened new market applications for the technology. This
progress has served to make coiled tubing an even more appealing solution for its early
market applications.
1.2.3. Coiled tubing industry present status:
The coiled tubing industry continues to be one of the fastest growing segments
of the oilfield services sector, with a rapid rate of about 20% per year in the last 15
years of the 20th century. Coiled tubing growth has been driven by attractive economics,
continual advances in technology and pipe manufacturing process, and utilization of
5
coiled tubing to perform an ever-growing list of field operations (see Table 1.1). Coiled
tubing today is a global, multi billion dollar industry in the mainstream of energy
extraction technology with estimated revenue of about USD 1 billion per year (before
the onset of the global economical crisis last year).
In January 2009, 1,704 CT units were estimated to be available on a worldwide
basis (counted by Les Tomlin, Trican Well Service Ltd.). The total number of working
coiled tubing units is up sharply from the roughly 850 units reported in February 2001.
Canada and the U.S. are estimated to contribute with about half of these units (419 and
456 respectively) while in Europe there are only about 152 active units (including Africa,
but excluding Russia and neighbouring countries where 196 units operate).
CT first established its niche in the marketplace as a cost-effective well cleanout
tool. In recent years, these conventional wellbore cleanouts and acid stimulation jobs
accounted for more than three quarters of total coiled tubing revenue. However, CT use
has continued to expand as it is adopted for use in additional field operations. Recently,
coiled tubing fracturing and drilling applications have emerged as two of the fastest
growth areas. Revenue from these two CT applications has grown from almost zero 15
years ago, to approximately 15% in more recent times.
The CT market is dominated by three large service companies, who control
approximately 60% of the coiled tubing total marketplace. The market is also serviced
by numerous smaller CT service providers. On a regional basis, there are typically more
than 30 providers of coiled tubing in the International marketplace. Canada is serviced
by more than 35 CT providers, and the U.S. by more than 25 companies.
The development emphasis in the CT industry today is to expand the envelope,
i.e. to perform CT services on deeper, longer reach, more tortuous wells with higher
pressures, more corrosive and erosive fluids using larger pipe sizes, longer lubricators,
moving platforms, etc. Also the geographic envelop is being expanded.
1.3
pump can greatly reduce the cost of deployment by eliminating the number of units on
site during the deployment.
Coil tubing can also be used to fracture the well, a process where fluid is
pressurized to thousands of psi (tens of MPa) on a specific point in a well to literally
break the rock apart and allow the flow of product.
1.3.2 Workover mechanical applications:
Two of the tasks from this field of applications, logging and perforating, are by
default the realm of wireline. Because coiled tubing is rigid, it can be pushed into the
well from the surface. This is an advantage over wireline, which depends on the weight
of the toolstring to be lowered into the well. For highly deviated and horizontal wells,
gravity may be insufficient. Roller stem and tractors can often overcome this
disadvantage at greatly reduced cost, particularly on small platforms and subsea wells
where coiled tubing would require mobilising an expensive mobile drilling rig. The use of
coiled tubing for these tasks is usually confined to occasions where it is already on site
for another purpose, for example a logging run following a chemical wash.
Some of the most frequent workover applications are discussed in section 5.2.
1.3.3 Drilling applications:
A relatively modern drilling technique involves using coiled tubing instead of
conventional drill pipe. This has the advantage of requiring less effort to trip in and out
of the well (the coil can simply be run in and pulled out while the drill string must be
assembled and dismantled joint by joint while tripping in and out). Additionally, the
coiled tubing is stripped into and out of hole, providing a hermetic seal around the coil
and, if desired, allowing the well to flow during drilling operations. Instead of rotating the
drill bit by using a rotary table or top drive at the surface, it is turned by a downhole
motor, powered by the motion of drilling fluid pumped from surface.
Recently, Reel Revolution Limited has developed the world's first API certified
CT Drilling Unit provided with a system able to rotate coiled tubing from surface at up to
20 RPM (rotations per minute) using coiled tubing sizes up to 3.5 in. (88.9 mm) OD.
On its website, this company claims to have a patent application filed and is currently
building the first unit with a view to it being operational during the 3rd quarter of 2009.
CT drilling applications are discussed in detail in section 5.1, while its limitations,
including the system mentioned above, are shown in section 5.3.
1.3.4 Production applications:
Coiled tubing is often used as a production string in shallow gas wells that
produce some water. The narrow internal diameter results in a much higher velocity
than would occur inside conventional tubing or casing. This higher velocity assists in
lifting liquids to surface, liquids which might otherwise accumulate in the wellbore and
eventually "kill" the well. The coiled tubing may be run inside the casing instead or
inside conventional tubing. When coiled tubing is run inside of conventional tubing it is
often referred to as a "velocity string" and the space between the outside of the coiled
tubing and the inside of the conventional tubing is referred to as "micro annulus".
Velocity strings are at present a common practice, especially in depleted gas
wells. They are the final resting place for many used small diameter (OD < 2 in. / 50.8
8
mm) CT strings. The objective of this permanent installation is to decrease the available
production surface area within the wellbore such that the produced gas has sufficient
energy to carry any produced liquids to surface. However, for these depleted wells, the
choice of coiled tubing size and installation hardware may be heavily dependent on the
price/availability of used CT strings.
Coiled tubing umbilicals can convey hydraulic submersible pumps, electric
submersible pumps and jet pumps into wells for both permanent deliquification schemes
and service applications.
1.3.5 Pipeline applications:
Coiled tubing can also be used as an effective tool for numerous pipeline
applications, including:
Transportation of inspection tools;
Removing organic deposits and hydrate plugs;
Removing sand or fill;
Placing a patch or liner to repair minor leaks;
Setting temporary plugs.
Land-based coiled tubing operations in pipelines are similar to CT operations in
horizontal wellbores with a few notable exceptions regarding the injector head (see
2.3) which has to: supply all the force required to RIH with the coiled tubing; be oriented
horizontally at the entrance to the pipeline (thus it requires a special mounting frame);
snub the coiled tubing into the pipeline during the entire RIH operation (thus the weight
measuring device must be configured for accurate measurement of snubbing forces).
Coiled tubing operations in pipelines from an offshore platform are similar to
operations in extended reach wellbores that kickoff at a shallow depth. The primary
difference is that the path of the coiled tubing between the injector and the conduit on
the sea floor may include several short radius bends which impart a high drag force,
and increase the snubbing force requirement on the CT injector.
There are also multiple permanent coiled tubing installations for pipeline
applications including flowlines and control lines. The use of coiled tubing as a flowline
between offshore structures normally results in installation costs much lower than for
conventional laybarge installations of welded line pipe and in lower frictional pressure
loss than equivalent size jointed pipe. Individual sections of flowline can be connected
mechanically (use of slip-type connectors) or by welding, with the latter being more
common. Coiled tubing is often used as the hydraulic control line connection between
production facilities and subsea equipment. Multiple lines are normally bundled into a
single line (umbilical) to reduce installation costs and to make the system more robust.
In addition, a crane is used to rig up and down the injector head and BOP for
most coiled tubing operations (see Figure 2.3). The following sections describe the
coiled tubing surface equipment (normally hydraulically powered) commonly used for
most CT operations as shown in figure 2.1.
Figure 2.2 indicates a totally different coiled tubing system, developed and
patented in the United States by P.J. Reilly for Phillips Petroleum Company, conceived
for simultaneously translating and rotating coiled tubing in a wellbore. It has a horizontal
tubing reel, mounted on a rig and was intended for CT drilling operations.
Fig. 2.2. Alternative Coiled Tubing Unit Design (including injector head detail)
Source: United States Patent, Phillips Petroleum Company (Feb. 2003).
2.2
The Coiled Tubing Unit is comprised of the complete set of equipment necessary
to perform standard continuous-length tubing operations in the field. It is a self
contained multi-use machine that can perform approximately any operation that a
conventional service rig is capable of with the exception of tripping jointed pipe.
The standard CT unit consists of four basic components (illustrated in figure 2.3):
Tubing Reel for storage and transport of the coiled tubing;
Injector Head to provide the surface drive force to run and retrieve the CT;
Control Cabin from which the equipment operator monitors and controls
the coiled tubing;
Power Pack which generates hydraulic and pneumatic power required to
operate the coiled tubing unit.
The coil tubing units are generally mounted on tandem drive Class 3 trucks,
about 40 feet / 12 m long and they are driven by a large air compressor, usually good
for 2500 psi (17.2 MPa) at 660 CFM (18.7 m3/min), mounted between the reel and the
11
cabin. In lower pressure, natural gas wells, with no hydrocarbons, the compressor is
actually used to blow air to bottom hole in these live natural gas wells, for the purpose of
"cleaning out" mud and fluid from the wellbore and perforations. In higher pressure
wells, or oil wells, nitrogen or carbon dioxide is the preferred and much safer method.
The main component of the coiled tubing surface equipment and the prime
mover for a CT unit is the injector head. This component contains the mechanism to
push and pull the coil tubing in and out of the hole. During most CT operations, an
injector head has a curved guide beam on top (the guide arch, also called gooseneck)
which supports and guides the coiled tubing in/out of the injector body. This structure
has a number of rollers along its length to support the coiled tubing.
The largest injector head, Hydra Rig 5200, can handle coiled tubing up to 7 in.
(177.8 mm) OD and pull up to 200,000 lbs (about 90 tonnes). Many injectors can move
with a speed of up to 200 ft./min (about 60 m/min).
12
13
The injector head is fitted with load cells acting as weight sensors, needed to
measure the coiled tubing axial force. They can be either hydraulic (an elastomer
bladder filled with hydraulic fluid or a piston within a cylinder) or electronic (strain gage
sensor). A small-diameter hydraulic line connects the load cell to a pressure gage in the
CT unit control cabin where the force on the load cell is displayed.
Another method of measuring the CT axial forces uses instrumented load pins
(strain gage type) to attach the injector head to support the frame.
To the same purpose, a weight indicator calibration system (WICS) as shown in
Figure 2.5 can also be used. It consists of a bi-directional electronic load cell attached to
both the CT threaded connector and the bottom connection of the stripper. A small
electronic box connected to the load cell with a shielded signal cable contains a digital
display for reading the axial force applied to the load cell by the injector.
Some coiled tubing injectors incorporate a depth counter for measuring the
length of coiled tubing travelling through them. A small wheel contacts the coiled tubing
immediately below the chains or in another location on the unit. The counter connected
to the wheel mechanically converts the revolutions of the wheel into a linear
measurement. A similar depth measuring system can be mounted on the tubing reel
14
while an auxiliary such system can mount over the coiled tubing between the guide arch
and the level wind.
2.4
The coiled tubing reel is a storage device for the CT string. Its drive mechanism
has only enough power to wrap/unwrap the coiled tubing on/off the drum. Most land CT
units have a reel mounted to a truck chassis or trailer. Some units use a cartridge reel
system of interchangeable reels.
Most reels use a chain drive connecting the hydraulic motor mounted on the
support frame to a large sprocket on the side of the drum. The reel drive motor also
functions as a dynamic brake during slackoff to maintain tension on the coiled tubing
between the drum and the guide arch. The reel brake locks the reel in position when the
CT is static, but is not used for dynamic braking. The coiled tubing operator obtains the
desired reel tension by controlling the hydraulic pressure to the motor.
Figure 2.6 includes the drawing of a fully-loaded tubing reel. The level-wind
serves to guide the wraps of coiled tubing onto the drum during pickup and to ensure
smooth unwrapping during slackoff. Normally, the double diamond lead screw on the
level-wind automatically paces the drum rotation. On the side of the reel, there are
mounted the high-pressure swivel (connecting the CT to external piping), the electrical
slip-ring assembly (connecting the electric line in the CT to external wiring) and the ball
launcher manifold.
15
escaping into the atmosphere. A coiled tubing BOP is designed specifically for CT
operations. It consists of several pairs of rams, with each ram designed to perform a
specific function. The number and type of ram pairs in a BOP are determined by the
BOP configuration: single, double, or quad.
Older quad-BOP systems, which still are the standard coiled tubing BOP, have a
different ram for each of these functions and they are commonly used in most
operations. The four BOP rams, from top to bottom and their associated functions are:
Blind ram seals the wellbore when the coiled tubing is out of the BOP;
Shear ram used to cut the coiled tubing pipe;
Slip ram supports the coiled tubing weight hanging below it (some are bidirectional and prevent the CT from moving upward);
Pipe ram seals around the hanging coiled tubing.
Newer (combi) dual-BOPs combine some of these functions together and
therefore they need only two distinct rams (a shear-blind ram and a pipe-slip ram).
Figure 2.9 show typical BOP configurations.
consist of identical ram bodies positioned opposite each other in a ram bore. Each ram
assembly contains a ram body, front seal, rear seal and a retainer bar. The front seal
closes on an open hole and the rear seal contains the well pressure from behind the
ram body. Hydraulic pressure acts on a piston connected to a piston rod. The force
moves the rams to the center of the trough bore. As the force is increased, the rubber
deforms and forms a seal.
Shear Ram Assembly: Shear rams have cutter blades to cut through coiled
tubing, wireline and cable. Shera rams have right and left hand ram bodies. The ram
assembly consists of ram bodies, shear blades and socket head cap screws which hold
the blades. The blade are made of a material that is hardened after machining while the
core of the blades remains relatively soft, giving the ductility required to prevent
cracking while shearing the coiled tubing.
Slip Ram Assembly: Slip rams grip the coiled tubing to prevent it from being
pushed out of the well or from falling down the well. Each ram assembly contains a ram
body, slip insert and a retainer pin. The slip insert slides into the ram and is hels in place
with the retainer pin which does not take any loading. The slips should hold the yield
load of the coiled tubing. The slip inserts have a special tooth design to minimize the
stresses on the coiled tubing.
Pipe Ram Assembly: Pipe rams (also called tubing rams) are sealing rams. They
seal around the coiled tubing to isolate wellbore fluids and contain pressure. Each ram
assembly contains a ram body, front seal, rear seal and a retainer bar. The front seal
closes around the coiled tubing and the rear seal contains the well pressure from behind
the ram body. Pipe rams function similarly to blind rams.
Standard coiled tubing BOPs also contain two equalizing ports, one on each side
of the sealing rams. It also has a side outlet between the slip and shear rams. This
outlet can be used as a safety kill line. BOPs are available in a range of sizes, shown in
Table 2.1 below together with the corresponding coiled tubing range and normally follow
the API flange sizes.
Table 2.1. BOP and Coiled Tubing Field Sizes
BOP Size
Coiled Tubing Range
inches
mm
inches
mm
2.56 and 3.06
65.0 and 77.7
0.75 through 2.0
19.05 through 50.8
4.06
103.12
1.0 through 2.875
25.4 through 73.1
5.12 ; 6.375 ; 7.06 130.0 ; 161.9 ; 179.3
1.25 through 3.5
31.75 through 88.9
BOP pressure ratings correspond with API 6A and 16A. Currently blowout
preventers have been built for 5,000 psi (34,5 MPa), 10,000 psi (68.95 MPa) and
15,000 psi (103.4 MPa) working pressure.
The BOP sits on top of the riser, which provides the pressurised tunnel down to
the top of the Christmas tree. Between the Christmas tree and the riser is the final
pressure barrier, the shear-seal single BOP (see Figure 2.8), which can cut and seal the
pipe.
19
The hydraulic release connector (HRC), provided with two mating sections, is
designed to facilitate the quick and safe connection of the BOP and/or lift frame to the
wellhead or drill pipe.
2.6
The tool string at the bottom of the coiled tubing is often called the bottom hole
assembly (BHA). It can range from something as simple as a jetting nozzle, for jobs
involving pumping chemicals or cement through the CT, to a larger string of logging
tools, depending on the operations.
One of the most important subsurface equipments is the motor head assembly
(MHA), comprising four equipment elements (a CT connection at the top, a check valve,
a CT disconnect at the bottom, a circulation sub, and a burst disc which is optional)
incorporated in the same tool to minimize its length. The MHA provides a mean of
disconnected from the downhole tools while still maintaining the pressure integrity of the
coiled tubing sting. This tool should always be run just below the end of the CT to
minimize the risk of becoming stuck.
The other main categories of such equipment are the followings:
CT connectors allowing the attachment of the coiled tubing to the BHA. Such
connectors can be: grub screw / dimple, external or internal slip type, roll-on,
double ended etc.
Check valves is a standard CT string component preventing the back flow of
well fluids into the coiled tubing in the event of failure or damage to the string
or surface equipment. There are several types of check valves.
Coiled tubing disconnects (release tools) of several types.
Coiled tubing circulation and control valves.
Coiled tubing jars and accelerators.
Coiled tubing straight bars and joints.
Coiled tubing centralizers.
CT toolheads and deployment bar systems.
CT running pulling and shifting tools.
Coiled tubing end locator.
Coiled tubing nipple locator.
Wireless CT collar locator.
Indexing tools.
CT wash tools and wash nozzles.
Coiled tubing fishing tools.
Impact drills.
Through-tubing packers and bridge plugs.
21
The most common material used at present for coiled tubing is low-alloy carbon
steel thermo-mechanically controlled rolled ASTM A606 Type 4 modified and ASTM
A607 modified. The mills can adjust the yield strength of these steels over the range of
55-90 Kpsi (380-620 N/mm2) with proper heat treatment. However, they attempt to keep
the surface micro-hardness of the finished CT below 22 HRC to decrease its
susceptibility to sulphide stress cracking (SSC).
The advent of coiled tubing drilling in 1991 spurred numerous advances in the
technology for manufacturing coiled tubing, including larger sizes, increased yield
strength range and exotic materials. Today, common coiled tubing steels have yield
strengths ranging from 55 Kpsi (380 N/mm2) to 120 Kpsi (about 830 N/mm2).
At the end of 2003, two companies supplied all the steel coiled tubing used by
the petroleum industry. Quality Tubing, Inc. (QTI) and Precision Tube Technology (PTT)
each have manufacturing facilities in Houston, TX. Table 3.1 below summarises the
mechanical characteristics of the most used QTI low-alloy carbon steels together with
the CRA material discussed in the following section QT-16Cr (having different values,
with respect to the other steels for both the density - 7.862 g/cm3 and modulus of
elasticity - 28106 psi / 0.193106 MPa).
Table 3.1. Mechanical Characteristics of QT Steels
Minimum Yield
Minimum Tensile
Minimum
Maximum
Type of
Strength
Strength
Elongation
Hardness
steel
psi
MPa
psi
MPa
%
Rockwell C
QT-700
70,000
483
80,000
552
26
22
QT-800
80,000
552
90,000
621
26
22
QT-900
90,000
621
98,000
676
*
22
QT-1000
100,000
689
110,000
758
*
28
QT-16Cr
90,000
621
110,000
758
NA
NA
* Calculation formula as a function of cross section area and tensile strength
Source: National Oilwell Varco, www.nov.com.
carbon steel. As a result, only a handful of titanium strings have been manufactured (at
the close of 2000, only three strings of titanium CT have been produced, all for
permanent installations).
3.2
Coiled tubing products are commercially available with outside diameters (OD)
from 1.0 in. (25.4 mm) to 4.5 in. (114.3 mm), although larger diameters up to 6.625 in.
(168.3 mm) have been produced in short lengths for testing.
The standard OD values are (in inches/mm): 1.0/25.4, 1.25/31.75, 1.5/38.1,
1.75/44.45, 2.0/50.8, 2.375/60.33, 2.875/73.03, 3.5/88.9, 4.5/114.3. The nominal CT
wall thickness ranges between 0.075 in. (1.91 mm) and 0.250 in. (6.35 mm) depending
on the OD value. For instance, 2.0 in. (50.8 mm) OD coiled tubing has the following
nominal wall thickness values (in inches): 0.109, 0.125, 0.134, 0.156, 0.175, 0.188.
3.2.1. Coiled tubing manufacturing:
The manufacture of coiled tubing involves multiple steps, and the following
contains a brief overview of the key components involved in the manufacturing process.
Virtually all coiled tubing in use today begins with large coils of low-alloy carbonsteel sheet as raw material. The coils can be up to 55 in. (1.397 m) wide and weigh over
24 tons. The length of sheet in each coil depends upon the sheet thickness and ranges
from 3,500 ft. (about 1,050 m) for 0.087 in. (2.21 mm) gauge to 1,000 ft. (about 300 m)
for 0.250 in. (6.35 mm) gauge.
The first step in tube making is to slice flat strips from the roll of sheet steel, and
this step is usually performed by a company specializing in this operation. The strip's
thickness establishes the CT wall thickness and the strip's width determines the OD of
the finished coiled tubing.
The steel strips are then shipped to a coiled tubing mill for the next step in the
manufacturing process. The mill utilizes bias welds to splice the flat strips together to
form a single continuous strip of the desired CT string length. The mechanical
properties of the bias strip welds almost match the parent strip in the as-welded
condition, and the profile of the weld evenly distributes stresses over a greater length of
the coiled tubing (prior to 1987, butt welds were used instead of bias welds thus
generated CT fatigue failure in the welds as a butt weld has inferior mechanical
properties to the parent tube particularly in the heat affected zone HAZ). Joining strips
of different thickness or using strips with a continually changing thickness yields a
tapered string as True Tapper TM produced by QTI.
The CT mill then utilizes a series of rollers to gradually form the flat strip into a
round tube. The final set of rollers forces the two edges of the strip together inside a
high frequency induction welding machine that fuses the edges with a continuous
longitudinal seam. This welding process does not use any filler material, but leaves
behind a small bead of steel (weld flash) on both sides of the strip.
The mill removes the external bead with a scarfing tool to provide a smooth OD.
The weld seam is then normalized using highly localized induction heating. Next, the
weld seam is allowed to cool prior to water cooling. Full tube eddy current or weld seam
ultrasonic inspection may also be performed, depending upon the mill setup. The tubing
24
then passes through sizing rollers that reduce the tube OD slightly to maintain the
specified manufacturing diameter tolerances. A full body stress relief treatment is then
performed to impart the desired mechanical properties to the steel. Subsequent to the
coiled tubing being wound on a shipping reel, the mill flushes any loose material from
the finished CT string.
3.2.2. Coiled tubing repair and splicing:
Finally, some considerations about repair of damaged CT are included. The only
acceptable method of repairing mechanical or corrosion damage to a coiled tubing
string is to physically remove the bad section of tubing and rejoin the ends with a
temporary or permanent splice.
A temporary splice consists of a mechanical connection that is formed with a
tube-tube connector. This type of connection is typically not used for prolonged
operations during a coiled tubing job, but rather as an emergency repair to allow the CT
string to be pulled out of the hole.
However, connector technology continues to evolve and there are certain
situations where connectors are used, such as to connect the tool string to the end of
the coiled tubing. There are three general types of connectors, including the grapple,
setscrew/dimple, and roll-on connector. Connector selection is based on the particular
operation to be performed, as each type incorporates unique features that make it bestsuited for a given application.
Only butt welds are possible for field welding repair of coiled tubing strings, with
TIG (Tungsten Inert Gas) welding being the preferred method for permanent repair of
CT work strings. The low heat input and the slowdeposition rate of this technique make
it ideal for use with coiled tubing. The CT industry has three generally accepted TIG
welding techniques:
Manually, with hand-held tools;
Semi-automatically, with manual preparation with an automatic orbital
welder;
Fully-automatically, with a robotic orbital welder.
All three methods can produce high quality welds. However, even the best repair
weld has no more than 50% of the fatigue life of the virgin tubing.
3.3
Many parameters affect the coiled tubing service life duration, including reel and
guide arch geometry, pumping pressure, CT diameter, wall thickness and material. To
be certain that the coiled tubing does not reach the end of its life during a certain job, it
is crucial that the CT life is calculated before designing any coiled tubing job.
In order to determine the suitability of an existing coiled tubing string for a
proposed operation, the user must determine if:
The stresses in the wall of the tubing caused by pressure and axial forces
will exceed the yield stress of the material (see 4.4), and
The accumulated fatigue in any segment of the string will exceed a
predetermined safe limit during the course of the operation.
25
26
model which determines when the coiled tubing will fail due to fatigue caused by the
pressure and bending cycles.
Figure 3.2 shows the relative CT life for various CT sizes as a result of a life
prediction model which determines the life cycle the coiled tubing could make before
fatigue failure occurs. One curve shows the CT life with 65% of the maximum allowable
working pressure (Pmaw) inside it. The other curves refer to a pressure based on a
constant flow rate at 8,000 ft. (about 2440 m) maximum depth.
Users of jointed tubular products (drill pipe, casing and production tubing)
carefully control or select a combination of product dimensions, properties and
operating conditions to avoid yielding the material. However, this is not possible for
coiled tubing operations. Plastic deformation in a metallic object is a permanent change
in its geometry (strain) caused by loads exceeding the materials strength (a
deformation that remains after the load causing it is removed).
For standard CT operations, the tube is plastically deformed as the tube is
straightened coming off the reel at point 1 as shown below in Figure 4.1. It is then bent
at point 2 as it moves onto the guide arch, and is straightened again at point 3 as it
travels to the injector and enters the wellbore. The CT string is then plastically deformed
at the same three points (events 4, 5 and 6 in Figure 4.1) during retrieval from the well.
28
The bending strain, B, caused by bending a segment of coiled tubing with the
radius r = OD/2 around a curve with the radius R (guide arch or reel radius) can be
calculated with the following equation:
B = r / R = OD/2R
(4.1)
Assuming R = 50 in. (1.27 m) and a coiled tubing OD of 1.25 in. (31.75 mm), the
bending strain reaches 1.25%, while B = 2% for OD = 2 in. (50.8 mm). For a material
with a yield strength of 80 Kpsi (551 N/mm2), having a yield strain of 0.3%, this results in
a plastic deformation. This is a proof that typical CT surface equipment plastically
deforms steel coiled tubing during normal use.
In order to avoid such plastic deformation, the only alternative is to use a
different coiled tubing material such as titanium with higher yield strength and lower
modulus of elasticity than steel or composite material with a low modulus of elasticity.
However, reducing the modulus of elasticity reduces the coiled tubing stiffness thus
increasing the risk of buckling. Composite CT for instance is very flexible and can be
spooled with little damage, but due to its very low stiffness it buckles quickly when put in
compression.
4.1.1 Effects of cyclic loading:
If a metallic specimen is loaded beyond the yield point, subsequently unloaded,
then loaded in the opposite direction, the material yield point in reduced. This
phenomenon is known as Bauschinger effect and it appears in the case of coiled tubing
subjected to consecutive bending and straightening.
Figure 4.2 summarised two tests results for a sample of 1.5 in. (38.1 mm) OD x
0.109 in. (2.77 mm) wall thickness: test A consisted of pulling to 7 times the yield strain,
compressing to zero strain and then repeating this cycle 100 times a loading
sequence similar to the one experienced by the CT wall outside (convex) side of each
bend; test B consisted of a loading sequence opposite to test A, experienced by the CT
wall inside (concave) side.
The data in figure 4.2 indicate that coiled tubing exhibits elastic perfectly plastic
behaviour only in its virgin state. Reverse of loading changes the character of the
stress-strain diagram, causes strain softening and eliminates the sharply defined yield
point. After 100 loading cycles (corresponding to 30 round trips of the coiled tubing
through the surface equipment), the force required to achieve the initial yield strain
dropped by about 20%, thus resulting in a decrease of approximately 20% in the
material yield stress assuming the cross sectional area did not change significantly.
However, the reduction in yield stress due to bending/straightening cycles would
be less than predicted by cyclic axial loading tests because the strain varies across the
wall during bending. None-the-less, the coiled tubing ability to support loads (its yield
strength) decreases with normal use.
Plastic deformation of material also imparts fatigue on the CT string, and fatigue
continues to accumulate over the life of the coiled tubing string, until such time as
fatigue cracks develop, resulting in a CT string failure (Fatigue can be defined as failure
under a repeated or otherwise varying load, which never reaches a level sufficient to
cause failure in a single application). Fatigue crack development is governed by
complex states of multiaxial cyclic plasticity and residual stress.
29
which the coiled tubing has been bend and straightened, then axially loaded and finally
the axial load was released. Figure 4.5 shows the results of experiments in which the
coiled tubing was rotated between bending events, while Figure 4.6 summarises the
results of studying the permanent elongation caused by axially loading CT while
bending (as it happens on the reel and over the guide arch).
Axial loading of the CT while bending (caused by reel back tension) causes
permanent elongation. The elongation between the reel and the guide arch
may be greater than the one caused by the axial loading in the well.
The transition load, Ft, can be calculated as a function of the CT wall thickness,
t, yield stress, y, Youngs modulus, E, and the bending radius, Rb, using the following
analytical equation developed by CTES, LP within a JIP:
Ft = 0.5 A y + 3
y2
E
Rb t
(4.2)
LF
A
+ E
2
if F < Ft
32
(4.4)
F Ft
Ft
+
L = L
A
A
2 + E 2 E
if F > Ft
(4.5)
= r02 0 ri 2 i + r0 ri sin ( i 0 ) ,
where
3ry
,
r
2
0
0 = arcsin
3ry
2ri
i = arcsin
in which
by changing the length and wall thickness of the sections to achieve the desired result.
Even though this technique can provide the best Ct string for a given job, the string may
not be suitable for operations in other wells or even other applications in the original
well. Usually a more generic string design is desirable.
The simplest method of designing a CT string considers only the wall thickness
necessary at a given location for the required mechanical strength and the total weight
of the string. This method assumes the open-ended CT string is hanging vertically in a
fluid with the buoyed weight of the tubing being the only force acting on the string.
Starting at the bottom of the string and working up, the designer selects the wall
thickness at the top of each section that provides sufficient tensile force at that location
(e.g. the designer could limit the stress at the top of each section to 30% of the material
yield strength).
4.3
Coiled tubing under axial compression can buckle into a sinusoidal or helical
shape if the compressive force exceeds a certain critical value for that particular mode
of buckling. Such phenomenon is common for operations in deep and/or extended
reach wells. Even though plastic deformation on the reel causes residual curvature in
the coiled tubing (only when the axial force is quite low), this is not a buckling state.
However, such curvature may help promote buckling as axial compressive force on the
coiled tubing increases.
Unlike drill pipe, casing or tubing, buckling of coiled tubing by itself is not a
serious problem, being an elastic deformation that does not damage the CT (a buckled
coil tubing can continue to slide and transmit axial force). However, CT buckling
significantly increases the normal force (drag) between the coiled tubing and the
wellbore. This may lead to lock-up, if the compressive force above the buckled section
increases high enough.
A coiled tubing segment inside a wellbore buckles into different shapes (modes)
when the axial compressive force acting on it exceeds values determined by the
particular combination of geometry and physical properties of the segment. The
segment remains unbuckled for lower axial compressive force. This threshold between
buckling mode is normally called the critical compressive force. The buckling modes
and limits are discussed in the following sections.
4.3.1 Sinusoidal buckling of coiled tubing strings:
When the axial compressive force increases to the critical sinusoidal buckling
limit, the segment deforms into a sinusoidal (snake-like) shape in continuous contact
with the wellbore. The buckled segment does not move away from the wellbore nor lie
in a plane and continues to change shape as the axial force increases beyond the
critical limit, but the normal force exerted by the segment on the wellbore is due mainly
to the weight of the segment. Sinusoidal buckling does not present a limiting condition
for CT operations, but is an intermediate condition on the path to helical buckling. A
schematic of the CT sinusoidal buckling is shown in Figure 4.8 for a horizontal wellbore.
34
EI W sin
,
rc
(4.6)
where
rc = 0.5 (DH OD)
,
in which OD is the outside diameter of the CT and DH is the hole (wellbore) diameter.
It can be seen that equation (4.6) contains only the bending stiffness of the CT
segment, EI, its buoyed weight (per unit length), W, and geometrical terms. they are
independent of the CT yield strength. Equation (4.6) includes also the case of a
horizontal wellbore for which = 90o and therefore sin = 1.
4.3.2 Helical buckling of coiled tubing strings:
If the axial compressive force continues to increase past the critical helical
buckling limit, the segment assumes a helical shape in continuous contact with the
wellbore. After the segment is buckled helically, the normal force exerted by the
segment on the wellbore gains a component proportional to the square of the axial
compressive force. Thus, drag on a helical buckled segment increases rapidly with
increasing axial compressive force. In order to account properly for this additional drag
in the force balance, we must know when the axial force on a segment exceeds the
critical helical buckling limit. A schematic of the CT helical buckling is shown in Figure
4.9 for both a horizontal and a vertical wellbore.
The axial compressive force required to helically buckle an inclined CT segment
is about 41% greater than FCS from equation (4.6). The critical helical buckling limit, FCH,
for a straight inclined segment can be calculated as follows:
35
FCH = 2 2
EI W sin
,
rc
(4.7)
The symbols from equation (4.7) are the one used in equation (4.6). The same
observation applies, concerning the independence of the yield strength.
1.943 EI W 2 ,
(4.8)
It can be seen that equation (4.8) depends only on the stiffness and buoyed
weigth of the segment, while the CT material yield strength is not a factor. For common
coiled tubing sizes in vertical holes, FVH is typically less than 200 lbf (890 N)
compression. This force may seem insignificant, but for many situations most of the
coiled tubing in a vertical wellbore is in tension, and buckling is not an issue. If part of a
CT string is in compression and the remainder is in tension, the location where axial
force changes from tension to compression is called the neutral point (see fig. 4.9).
For common coiled tubing sizes, FCH for a segment can be 20-30 times greater
than FVH. This partially explains why CT usually buckles first near the bottom of the
vertical portion of a well during RIH. Another reason is that drag is much higher on
curved and inclined segments leading to higher axial compressive force at the bottom of
the vertical section. It can be also noted that FCH increases with decreasing radial
clearance and increasing segment bending stiffness, weight and inclination.
This provides several options for reducing the tendency of a segment to buckle
helically. If buckling could be a problem, larger diameter coiled tubing simultaneously
36
increases I and W while decreasing rc. Another alternative is to increase the CT wall
thickness which simultaneously increases I and W.
It is very important to state that both alternatives increase the drag between the
coiled tubing and the wellbore. Depending on the conditions, this can offset any benefit
of greater stiffness. The only way to determine the effects of changing coiled tubing
dimensions is by using a coiled tubing simulator program.
If the coiled tubing dimensions are fixed, the only way to increase the critical
helical buckling limit is to lower mud weight (increase W) or conduct the CT operation
inside a smaller casing or hole size (decrease rc).
4.3.3 Effects of wellbore curvature and of friction:
In general, wellbore curvature stabilizes a segment against buckling, I.e. Coiled
tubing buckles more easily in straight sections of the wellbore than in dogleg or build
sections. This does not necessarily means that tortuosity or curvature in the wellbore is
beneficial for CT operations (reducing the buckled length would extend the CT reach
into a well), because curvature also causes higher drag which may shift the location of
buckling upwards.
Traditionally, equation (4.7) has been used in curved holes by considering as
the average inclination of the curved segment. However this does not account for the
stabilizing effect of curvature on buckling because equation (4.7) does not take into
account the direction or rate of curvature. An improved procedure accounts for the
effect of curvature by including the normal force due to curvature as additional
resistance to buckling. Finally, a complex quadratic polynomial equation is obtained for
the axial force requires for helical buckling in a curved hole, FH. Such force value is
found to be greater than FCH in building, high dropping and purely azimuthal curvatures,
while it is smaller for moderately dropping curvature.
Complex buckling experiments indicated that friction significantly affects buckling
behaviour of tubing. In general, friction stabilizes a tubular under compression to delay
the onset of buckling and also causes hysterezis in the post-buckling behaviour. Figure
4.10 below shows typical results from buckling experiments for a rod buckled inside a
tube. It can be seen that hysterezis is significant and axial compressive force at
unbuckling is always lower than the one at the onset of buckling.
The conclusion is that current theory actually predicts axial compressive force at
unbuckling and therefore predicted critical buckling forces are conservative equation
(4.7) predicts FCH values significantly lower than determined experimentally.
Unfortunately, friction is very difficult to include in stability analyses (based on energy
methods) as it is not a conservative force.
Friction has a stabilizing effect on helical buckling by delaying the buckling onset.
An adjusted critical helical buckling limit for an inclined segment with friction can be
obtained from equation (4.7) by adding the drag force (a frictional stabilizing force equal
to CfWsin where is Cf the drag coefficient). The following equation results:
FCH = 2 2 1 + C f
EI W sin
= (1 + C f ) FCH ,
rc
37
(4.9)
2 r 2
+ 1 1
L = L
where
= 2
2 EI
F
(4.10)
and F > FCH is the axial compressive force in the buckled CT segment.
By itself, helical buckling is neither a critical problem nor a limiting condition for
coiled tubing. It does not damage or plastically deform the coiled tubing. However,
post/buckling lock-up is the limiting condition for RIH. Lock-up can prevent the BHA
from reaching the touch down point. In simple terms, lock-up is a local phenomenon that
occurs during RIH when the local increase in drag exceeds the axial compressive force
from the Ct segment above. When buckled coiled tubing reaches this condition, any
further increase in axial compressive force at the top of the helix is lost completely to
drag. Since normal force due to helical buckling increases as the square of axial
compressive force, lock-up may occur almost immediately after a segment helically
38
buckles. Attempting to force more coiled tubing into a hole after lock-up can damage the
tubing. Proper modelling of post-buckling drag effects with a CT computer simulator is
required to determine whether lock-up occurs.
4.4
When there is a large pressure differential across the coiled tubing wall,
especially when combined with a large axial force, there is a risk of CT failure (burst or
collapse). A positive differential pressure, i.e. an internal pressure greater than the
external pressure, represents a burst condition, while a negative differential pressure,
i.e. a grater external pressure, represents a collapse condition. Typically the greatest
risk of burst or collapse occurs at the wellhead. These limits can be predicted by using a
mathematical model, usually based on the von Mises combined stress and taking into
account helical buckling, maximum expected pressures, torque and diameter growth.
Considering the coiled tubing geometry and the four applied loads (internal
pressure - pi, external pressure - pe, axial force - F, applied torque - Mt), the principal
stresses acting on a CT segment are determined (axial stress, including bending - a,
radial stress - t, tangential / hoop stress - h, shear stress - ) and finally the total
equivalent von Mises stress, vM, is calculated. As the equations used for such
calculation are widely known, they are not included in this module.
It has only to be mentioned that when calculating the axial stress, the real force,
Fa, has to be considered and not the effective force, Fe. Fa is the actual axial force (as it
would be measured by a strain gauge), while Fe, also called the weight, is the axial
force if the effects of pressure are ignored (it is the force measured by the weight
indicator on the CT unit and the load upon which buckling depends). The relationship
between these two forces is (where Ai is the CT internal cross sectional area and Ae the
CT external cross sectional area):
Fa = Fe + Ai pi Ae pe
Finally, the combined von Mises stress is compared with a given percentage
(usually 80%, defined by the safety factor) of the yield strength of the given CT material.
Such approach, even if it is considered a good method for calculating the mechanical
limits for steel CT (due to its conservative results), ignores the following conditions:
residual stress, work softening, perfectly plastic behaviour, ovality etc.
Above the injector, the dominant failure mode is fatigue. Below the injector
chains and above the stripper, combined compression and burst pressure are the
dominant loads but they are not usually a concern. Below the stripper, the most likely
failure modes are collapse and tensile failure, while excessive compression is normally
not a problem.
Coiled tubing mechanical limits curves can be drawn, showing the combination of
the values of the axial force (real or effective) versus the ones differential pressure for
which a limit condition is reached (the equivalent stress equals the yield limit) and
therefore there is a risk of potential failure of the coiled tubing.
Collapse failure mode is difficult to predict by means of the von Mises criterion
briefly described above because it depends on factors that are seldom known
accurately (CT ovality and eccentricity, yield stress). To model CT collapse, apart the
plastic hinge theory proposed by Newman, API RP 5C7 proposed a set of empirical
equations to predict the collapse pressure differential.
39
Coiled tubing drilling has been utilized on a commercial basis for many years, and
can provide significant economic benefits when applied in the proper field setting.
Figure 5.1 shows a coiled tubing drilling unit detailing the subsurface standard
equipment used for such operation.
In addition to potential cost advantages, CT drilling can provide the following
additional benefits:
Safe and efficient pressure control;
Faster tripping time and speed (more than 150 ft./min 45 m/min);
Smaller footprint and weight;
Faster rigup/rigdown;
Reduced environment impact;
Less personnel;
High speed telemetry (optional feature).
However, the most significant disadvantage of coiled tubing drilling is the inability
to rotate the CT in the borehole which implies that the energy required to rotate the drill
bit must be supplied by the pressurised drilling mud driving a hydraulic motor. In
addition, the lack of rotation causes increased friction between the CT and the walls of
the wellbore which makes more difficult the translation of the CT string in the wellbore
and may require more frequent tripping of the tubing. As a consequence, several
attempts have been made to develop a CT unit capable also to rotate the coiled tubing
(see figure 2.2 and 5.2). CT drilling applications have also other limitations that are
commented in section 5.3, including the offshore drilling operations.
Table 5.2 below contains a coiled tubing drilling applications summary divided in
four major categories. The first applications have been re-entry drilling.
Table 5.1. CT Drilling Applications Summary (Source: [10])
Vertical Drilling
Deviated Drilling
Depending on existing wells
Lateral drainholes
Re-entry Drilling
Disposable exploration wells
Steam injection
Observation and delineation wells
New Well Drilling
Environmental observation
Slim-hole production/injection wells
Bit design and selection for coiled tubing drilling follows the same theory as is
used in conventional rotary drilling. However, CT drilling generally uses higher bit
40
speeds at lower weight on bit as a result of the structural differences in coiled tubing
versus jointed pipe.
In general, coiled tubing drilling can be divided into two main categories
consisting of directional and non-directional wells, i.e. vertical and deviated drilling. Nondirectional wells use a fairly conventional drilling assembly in conjunction with a
downhole motor. Directional drilling requires the use of an orienting device to steer the
well trajectory, per the well plan. CT drilling can then be further segmented into overbalance and under-balanced drilling applications.
Non-directional wells represent the largest coiled tubing drilling application, and
these are defined as a well that lacks downhole tools to control direction, inclination
and/or azimuth. Much of the CT drilling work performed to date involved shallow gas
well development in Canada, but it has also been used for shallow water injection wells
and for "finishing" operations. A primary advantage that coiled tubing drilling provides in
this application is the speed of the rig up/down operation, and the continuous rate of
penetration (no delays to add stands of jointed pipe).
The majority of this CT drilling work has been performed with hole sizes less than
7 in. (177.8 mm), but hole sizes up to 133/4 in. (about 350 mm) have been successfully
drilled. Much the same as in conventional drilling, drill collars can be used in low angle
wells to control inclination build-up and apply weight on bit for coiled tubing drilling
applications.
Coiled tubing drilling application for directional wells utilizes an orienting device in
the bottom hole assembly (BHA) to control the wellbore trajectory as desired. CT drilling
for this application can include new wells, extensions, side-tracks through existing
completions, horizontal drainholes, or side-tracks where the completions are pulled.
However, the primary use of coiled tubing drilling for directional wells is to directionally
drill into new reservoir targets from existing wellbores.
Directional drilling with coiled tubing has some fundamental differences compared
to conventional rotary drilling techniques. One of the basic differences is the need for an
orienting device to control the well trajectory, since CT cannot rotate. Orienting devices
control hole direction by rotating a bent housing to a particular orientation (toolface) or
controls the side loading at the bit to push the assembly in a particular direction. This
control over the BHA provides directional control for coiled tubing drilling applications.
A steering tool is used to measure inclination, azimuth, and tool face orientation.
Two basic types of steering tools are used for directional drilling with CT. Electric
steering tools are used in conjunction with a cable inside the coiled tubing to transmit
data to surface. Mud pulse tools comprise the second type of steering device for CT
drilling applications. Mud pulse steering tools transmit data to the surface by generating
pressure pulses in the mud.
In addition to orientation and steering devices, some BHAs utilized for coiled
tubing drilling are equipped with additional measurement tools, including gamma ray,
casing collar locator, accelerometers (shock load measurements), pressure (internal
and annulus) and weight on bit.
5.1.2 Wellbore hydraulics and wellbore fluids:
There are some key fluid design parameters to keep in mind for coiled tubing
drilling applications versus traditional rotary drilling. For example, all CT drilling
42
operations require the fluid to travel through the entire tubing string regardless of the
current drilling depth. In addition, the frictional pressure loss for coiled tubing on the reel
is considerably larger than for straight tubing. Thus, for optimum hydraulic performance,
the drilling fluid must behave as a low viscosity fluid while inside the CT, and as a high
viscosity fluid in the annulus (for efficient cuttings removal).
Another key difference associated with coiled tubing drilling is the absence of
tubing rotation while drilling. Jointed pipe is rotated during conventional drilling
operations, and this movement helps keep the drill cuttings suspended in the drilling
fluid, so they can be lifted to surface. Since the tube doesn't rotate in CT drilling
applications, hole cleaning can be more challenging in heavily deviated/horizontal
applications. This effect is partially offset by the smaller cuttings produced with coiled
tubing drilling (higher RPM, lower weight on bit). In addition, special visco-elastic fluids
have been developed for CT drilling, that change their rheology according to the local
shear rate, i.e., become more viscous in the annulus (lower shear rate) to improve
cutting suspension.
5.1.3 Overbalanced and underbalanced coiled tubing drilling:
For overbalanced drilling, as with conventional well drilling operations, the drilling
fluid is used for controlling subsurface pressure and the coiled tubing drilling fluid
systems are typically smaller versions of conventional systems. Conventional well
control principles apply except that the CT string limits the fluid flow rate and the
frictional pressure loss varies with the ratio of tubing on/off the reel.
To date, most underbalanced coiled tubing drilling activity has been for re-entry
operations, but new wells could also benefit from this approach. CT drilling is ideal for
this underbalanced applications because of it's inherent well control system. In addition,
underbalanced "finishing" is a variation of underbalanced drilling used extensively in
Canada and gaining acceptance in other areas. For finishing operations, a conventional
rig is used to drill to the top of the reservoir and casing is run. From this point, coiled
tubing drilling is utilized to drill into the reservoir with underbalanced drilling techniques.
This technique attempts to leverage the respective strengths of both drilling
approaches. Conventional drilling can be faster (less expensive) in the large diameter,
unproductive uphole drilling intervals, while underbalanced CT drilling is faster (less
expensive) in the producing interval. coiled tubing drilling is also better suited to deal
with the pressure/produced hydrocarbons from the productive interval.
5.2
44
This coiled tubing application has experienced significant growth in recent years,
and provides several advantages versus conventional formation treatment techniques.
In particular, CT provides the ability to quickly move in and out of the hole (or be quickly
repositioned) when fracturing multiple zones in a single well. Coiled tubing also provides
the ability to facture or accurately spot the treatment fluid to ensure complete coverage
of the zone of interest. When used in conjunction with an appropriate diversion
technique, more uniform treating of long target zones can be achieved. This is
particularly important in horizontal wellbores. At the end of the formation treating
operation, coiled tubing can be used to remove any sand plugs used in the treating
process, and to lift the well to be placed on production.
One of the earlier concerns with coiled tubing fracturing was the erosion effects
that occur when proppant is pumped during the fracturing operation and the resulting
impact on CT string life. An ultrasonic thickness (UT) gauge is now used on location to
measure coiled tubing thickness during the job. Data from these UT measurements can
be used to adjust the coiled tubing fatigue models, and to accurately monitor remaining
CT string life.
5.2.3 Unloading a well with nitrogen:
The process of using coiled tubing to unload a well with nitrogen is a quick and
cost-effective method used to regain sustained production. A typical field scenario
consists of a wellbore that has developed a fluid column with sufficient hydrostatic
pressure to prevent the reservoir fluid from flowing into the wellbore. Displacement of
some of this wellbore fluid with nitrogen reduces the hydrostatic head, and this
reduction of BHP allows the reservoir fluid to again flow naturally into the wellbore. If the
wellbore conditions are suitable (pressure, fluid phase mixture and flow rate), production
will continue after nitrogen pumping ceases.
There are numerous benefits associated with the use of coiled tubing for a
nitrogen kickoff operation. The rate and depth of the nitrogen injection can be adjusted
to fit a wide range of field conditions. The procedure also provides a ready source of
uncontaminated production fluid samples (oil, formation water). And, the procedure is
extremely simple from an operational standpoint, as only a small amount of equipment
and a limited number of field personnel are necessary.
5.3
45
In general larger coiled tubing allows higher loads, drainhole lengths and flow
rates. However, the CT diameter may be restricted by space, weight and fatigue life.
Reel size and weight limits lead to limitations of the CT string length and diameter.
The flow-rate limitations of downhole motors limit the flow-rate gains of large
tubing in many cases. In addition, large tubing in a small wellbore has a significant
annulus pressure drop.
It can de concluded that coiled tubing drilling has two major limitations, friction
and high cost and therefore it is not largely used to drill. The design of the first APIcertified CT drilling rig (called Revolver) developed by Reel Revolution Limited
overcomes both of these limitations. This units rotation overcomes friction, assists in
hole cleaning, and allows the use of standard directional BHAs. The ability to rotate coil
at surface marries the best of rotary jointed pipe drilling with the best of coiled tubing
drilling. Initial studies into potential efficiency savings translate into a 40% saving in rig
time when compared to standard jointed pipe operations. This results in more reservoirs
drilled per string year. The Revolver design can be operational upon arrival at the well
site within six hours. In addition, the elimination of the guide arch from the new unit
reduces fatigue and increases CT life, as illustrated in figure 5.2.
Coiled tubing operations on many offshore platforms are also constrained by
weight limitations (due to the lifting capacity of the crane) as well as deck loading and
space limitations. A loaded CT reel is typically the heaviest component of the coiled
tubing system. Various solutions to address this issue have been successfully
implemented in the field, including:
Disassembling the CT equipment into the smallest, lightest lifts possible, and
reassembling the equipment on the platform;
Cut the CT string into sections, spool the sections onto lightweight shipping
reels, lift the reels onto the platform, then reconnect the sections;
Lift the CT unit, minus the CT string, onto the platform. Then spool the CT
string onto the work reel from a loaded reel on a floating vessel;
Install only the CT injector on the wellhead, leaving the CT reel and other CT
unit components on a barge or jackup, positioned alongside the platform.
The second option requires high quality CT welding services to be available, while
the last two options require more equipment and personnel versus that of typical CT
operations, with an associated increase in the cost.
Finally, the limitations of CT technology for pipeline applications are briefly
discussed. Regardless of the operational environment (land or offshore), post-helical
buckling lockup (see 4.3.5) of the coiled tubing is typically the primary limiting factor
for such operations. Lockup limits both the horizontal reach of the coiled tubing into the
pipeline, and the maximum available force that it can transmit. In addition, the radial
clearance between the CT and the pipeline is usually much larger when compared to
standard wellbore operations, thus reducing the downhole critical force required to
helically buckle the coiled tubing. Also, oil pipelines typically have an internal coating of
highly viscous oil or wax that significantly increases the CT sliding friction coefficient.
This excessive drag against the coiled tubing can also reduce the length of CT that can
be pushed into the pipeline prior to buckling.
46
The typical approaches used to overcome coiled tubing drag in pipelines are: the
use of liquid friction modifiers to reduce the coefficient of friction between the CT and
the pipeline; the addition of "skates" (rigid centralizers or stabilizers with rollers) to the
CT string at regular intervals; the use of hydraulic "thrusters" consisting of jets aimed in
a direction opposite to the CT movement direction.
47
References
1. API RP 5C7 Recommended Practice for Coiled Tubing Operations in Oil and
Gas Services.
2. CTES, LP, Coiled Tubing Manual, Longview, Texas, 2005, www.ctes.com.
3. ICoTA (International Coiled Tubing Association), An Introduction to Coiled Tubing
History, Applications, and Benefits, www.icota.com.
4. E. Mark, World Oils Coiled Tubing Handbook, Gulf Publishing Company, 1993.
5. A. Sas-Jaworsky, Coiled Tubing Operation and Services, Part 1-5, World Oil,
Houston, Texas, 1991-1992.
6. E.J. Walker, L. Grantt, Coiled Tubing Operation and Services, Part 7, World Oil,
Houston, Texas, 1992.
7. J.L. Welch, R.R. Whitlow, Coiled Tubing Operation and Services, Part 8, World
Oil, Houston, Texas, 1992.
8. J.L. Welch, R.K. Stevens, Coiled Tubing Operation and Services, Part 9, World
Oil, Houston, Texas, 1992.
9. Ken Newman, Where is the Coiled Tubing Wave Headed?, Power Engineering
International Magazine, Sept. 1994.
10. L.J. Leising, K.R. Newman, Coiled Tubing Drilling, SPE Paper 24594, 1992.
11. H.V. Thomas, D.M. Eslinger, Safe Deployment of Specialized Coiled Tubing
Tools in Live Wells, SPE Paper 24621, 1992.
12. D.G. Zisopol, Research Concerning the Coiled Tubing Manufacturing Used in
Petroleum-Gas Industry, Ph. D. Thesis, Petroleum-Gas University of Ploieti,
2000.
Web sites:
13. www.advancedcoiledtubing.com
14. www.astm.org
15. www.coiledtubingtulsa.org
16. www.drillingsystems.com
17. www.halliburton.com
18. www.nov.com
19. www.reel-revolution.com
20. www.slb.com/Schlumberger
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