This study guide is a companion to the
Psychology of Learning for Instruction
by Marcy P. Driscoll.
Foundational
Definitions
• Instructional psychologists are
concerned with how best to
enhance learning. They rely on the
findings of psychological and
instructional research to solve
instructional problems and make
decisions about instructional
practice.
• Instructional theory is
identifying methods that will best
provide the conditions under which
learning goals will most likely be
attained.
• Instruction refers to the
deliberate arrangement of learning
conditions to promote attainment
of some intended goal.
• A theory is a set of hypotheses
that apply to all instances of a
particular phenomenon
• Instructional strategy continuum
(expository instruction at one end
and discovery instruction at the
other). Looking at the same issue
from another perspective, there
are three levels of guidance in
instruction:
− Pure discovery - The student
receives representative
problems to solve with minimal
teacher guidance (Mayer,
2003).
− Guided Discovery - The student
receives problems to solve, but
the teacher provides hints and
directions about how to solve
the problem to keep the student
on track (Mayer, 2003).
− Expository - all information is
laid out in front of the learner.
The final answer or rule is
presented to the student
• Four General Knowledge
Categories
− Factual knowledge
− Conceptual knowledge
− Procedural knowledge
− Metacognitive knowledge
Behaviorism /
Objectivism
Theorists: Bandura, Pavlov, Skinner,
Thorndike
• Views human mind as a black box
of complex, poorly-understood
mental processes that ultimately
are manifested in outward
behaviors
• Learning happens when a correct
response is demonstrated following
the presentation of a specific
environmental stimulus
• Learning can be detected by
observing an organism over a
period of time
• Emphasis is on observable and
measurable behaviors
• Instruction utilizes consequences
and reinforcement of learned
behaviors
• Believes behavior is guided by
purpose
• Cues are antecedents to behavior
and set the conditions for its
occurrence
• Objectivism – knowledge comes
about through experience. Through
empirical evidence. Knowledge is
represented in a learners mind as
an ever-closer approximation of the
real world.
Embedded Theories
• Pavlov's Classical Conditioning
• Skinner's Operant Conditioning
• Stimulus-Response Theory
• Thorndike's Laws and
Connectionism
• Information Processing
Representations of the
Learning Process
• Stimulus-Response
• Reinforced Behavior
• Antecendent Behavior
Consequence (ABC)
• Sequenced knowledge and skills
presented in logical limited steps
Goals of Instruction
• Communicate or transfer behaviors
representing knowledge and skills
to the learner (does not consider
mental processing)
• Instruction is to elicit the desired
response from the learner who is
presented with a target stimulus
• Learner must know how to execute
the proper response as well as the
conditions under which the
response is made
Instructional Models
• Computer-based instruction
• Contract learning
• Individualized instruction (e.g.,
Personalized System of Instruction)
• Programmed instruction
• Information processing model
• Systems approach
Implications for Instructional
Design
• Behavioral objectives
• Dick & Carey instructional design
model
• Performance-based assessment
• Systems models
• Events of Instruction
Instructional / Learning
Strategies
• Behaviorism
• Instructional cues to elicit correct
response
• Practice paired with target stimuli
• Reinforcement for correct
responses
• Building fluency (get responses
closer and closer to correct
response)
• Multiple opportunities/trials (Drill
and practice)
• Discrimmination (recalling facts)
• Generalization (defining and
illustrating concepts)
• Associations (applying
explanations)
• Chaining (automatically performing
a specified procedure)
> THEORY: Radical
Behaviorism
• Learner outcomes – observable
behavior
• Role of the learner – active in the
environment, consequences that
follow behavior determine whether
it is repeated
• Role of the instructor – identify
learning goals. Determine
contingencies of reinforcements,
implement program of behavior
change. Negotiate all of these with
the learner’s input
• Inputs or preconditions to learning
– environmental conditions serve
as discriminative stimuli, cueing
which behavior is appropriate to
perform
• Process of learning – not
specifically addressed in this
theory. All learning is assumed to
be explained in terms of
observable behavior and
environmental events surrounding
its occurrence
> STRATEGY: Behavior
Modification
• Only observable events and
behaviors are considered
• Basic Concepts:
− Eliciting stimulus
− Response
− Positive reinforcer
− Negative reinforcer
− Target behavior
− Contingency
− Desensitization
− Counterconditioning
− Modeling
• Phases:
1. Specify a Target Behavior
• Identify the desired
behavior
• Precisely and explicitly
describe the behavior
• Determine how it can
best be observed and
measured
2. Establish a Baseline
• Systematically observe
the current behavior
• Measure current behavior
or competing behaviors
• Assess antecedent
conditions and reinforcing
stimuli
3. Design the Contingencies
• Identify reinforcers (pos
or neg) that are appropriate
to the target
• Determine how often
reinforcement will be
provided
• Select other appropriate
aspects of the intervention,
such environmental
 conditions, punishments,
counterconditioning,
desensitization, or modeling
4. Institute the Program
(Intervention)
• Inform the learner of the
conditions
• Structure the
environment for success
where possible
• Reinforce the desired
behavior
• Continue to measure and
chart behavior
5. Evaluate the Program
• Compare intervention
phase data to baseline data
• Use reversal to check for
internalization of new
behavior
• Withdraw reinforcement,
but continue to monitor
during maintenance phase
• Best Uses:
− In children’s classrooms to
teach socially desirable
behavior
− To deal with workplace
problems as tardiness and poor
work habits
− To increase the use of a new
method or procedure
− By groups and individuals to
modify their own behaviors
− By health-related areas for
changing behavior in adults
(exercise, smoking cessation,
alcohol/drug abstinence,
weight-loss programs, stress
reduction)
> STRATEGY: Behavior
Modeling
• Attempts to change behavior
directly
• Components:
1. Prescribed Critical
Steps/Behaviors
• Designer identifies critical
steps/behaviors that
competent practitioners use
• when they successfully carry
out specific job tasks (can
use Critical Incident
Technique)
2. Credible Model
• The trainees are shown a
video model of the critical
steps/behaviors being used
effectively in a typical and
realistic problem situation
3. Skill Practice Exercises
• Trainees repeatedly
rehearse and practice the
critical steps/behaviors in
realistic problem situations
4. Specific Feedback and Social
Reinforcement
• As trainees are successful in
using the critical
steps/behaviors, the
instructor facilitates
feedback from their peers
that is specific and positively
reinforcing
5. Transfer Strategies
• Transfer to the workplace is
greatly enhanced by
progressively increasing the
difficulty and reality of the
skill practice exercise
6. On-the-job Reinforcement
• The supervisors of the
trainees are also trained in
how to use the same skills,
how to coach trainees, and
how to reinforce their
subordinates’ attempts to
use the critical
steps/behaviors
• Best uses:
− Most effective, robust method
currently known for training
people in interpersonal or “soft”
skills
− Enables trainees to learn to
transfer and adjust their skills to
the similar but different
situation
− Can be used for technical
training
− When the following conditions
are present: an experienced
instructor, a clear set of
behavior skills to learn,
repeated practice and feedback
(social reinforcement) from
other trainees, and on-the-job
reinforcement by the trainees’
managers
Cognitivism /
Pragmatism
Theorists: Anderson, Ausubel,
Gardner, Gagne, Merrill, Normal,
Novak, Reigeluth, Rummelhart
• Learner is viewed as an information
processor
• Learning is a change of knowledge
state
• Knowledge acquisition is described
as a mental activity that entails
internal coding and structuring by
the learner
• Emphasis on structuring,
organizing and sequencing
information to facilitate optimal
processing
• Focus is on how learners
remember, retrieve, and store
information in memory
• Examines the mental structure and
processes related to learning
• Learning is viewed as an active
process that occurs within the
learner and which can be
influenced by the learner
• The outcome of learning is not only
dependent on what the teacher
presents but also on what the
learner does to process this
information.
• Basic Concepts:
− Recall vs. recognition
− Automaticity
− Encoding specificity
− Metacognition
− Rote vs. meaningful learning
− Cognitive structure
− Anchoring ideas
− Cognitive load
− Advance organizer vs.
comparative organizers
− Schema signals
− Transfer
Embedded Theories
• Cognitive Information Processing
(CIP)
• Component Display Theory
• Dual Coding Theory
• Elaboration Theory
• Gestalt Theory
• Mental Models
• Schema Theory
• Assimilation Theory
• Subsumption Theory
Representations of the
Learning Process
• Cognitivist Learning Perspective
• Information Processing
• Schema
• Mental Models
Goals of Instruction
• Communicate or transfer
knowledge in the most efficient,
effective manner (mind-
independent, can be mapped onto
learners)
• Focus of instruction is to create
learning or change by encouraging
the learner to use appropriate
learning strategies
• Learning results when information
is stored in memory in an
organized, meaningful way
• Teachers/designers are responsible
for assisting learners in organizing
information in an optimal way so
that it can be readily assimilated
Instructional Models
• Collins & Stevens Inquiry Teaching
Model
• Keller's ARCS Model of Motivation
• Merrill’s Component Display Model
Prescriptive Design Models
• ADDIE (Analysis, Design,
Development, Implementation,
Evaluation)
• ASSURE
• ARCS
• Criterion Referenced Instruction
• Dick and Carey Model
• 4C-ID
• Gagne’s Nine Events
• Instructional Systems Design (ISD)
• Organizational Elements Model
(Systems Theory)
• Rapid Prototyping
Implications for Instructional
Design
• Cognitive objectives
• Learning strategies
• Learning taxonomies (Gagné's
intellectual skills)
• Prerequisite skills
• Task analysis
 relating it to what is already in
Instructional / Learning memory Memory Stages
Strategies • Role of the instructor – organize Stages
Proper Sen Sho Lo
• Information Processing Model ties sor rt- ng-
y ter ter
• Explanations
Reg m m
• Demonstrations iste me me
• Illustrative examples r mor mo
• Gestalt Theory y ry
• Matched non-examples (sh (lo
ort- ng-
• Corrective feedback
ter ter
• Outlining m m
• Mneumonics stor sto
• Dual-Coding Theory information, direct attention, e) re)
• Chunking Information enhance encoding and retrieval, Capaci Lar Sm Lar
• Repetition ty ge all ge
provide practice opportunities, and
Code Lite Dua Epi
• Concept Mapping help learners monitor their learning
ral l so
• Advanced Organizers • Inputs or preconditions to learning cop cod dic
• Analogies – sensory information in the y of e /
• Summaries environment phy ver Se
• Keller's ARCS Model of Motivation • Process of learning – processing sica bal ma
information and storing it in l & nti
• Interactivity sti visu c
memory (including processes of
• Synthesis mul al
attention, pattern recognition,
• Schema Theory us
encoding, chunking, rehearsal, and
• Metaphor retrieval)
Perma 0.5 20- Per
• Generative Learning nence sec 30 ma
ond sec ne
• Organizational strategies
s ond nt
• Elaboration Theory s
• Links to prior knowledge Source Env Env Eff
iron iron ect
> THEORY: Cognitive me me ive
nt nt en
Information Processing and co
(CIP) prio din
• Learner outcomes – declarative r g
kno fro
knowledge, procedural knowledge,
wle m
memory dge ST
• Role of the learner – attend to and S
process incoming information, Loss Dec Dis Irr
 ay pla etri
ce ev
me abi
nt lity
or
dec
ay
> THEORY: Meaningful
Reception Learning
• Learner outcomes – organized
conceptual knowledge that
involves understanding
• Role of the learner – make
connections between prior
knowledge and to-be-learned
information that results in
elaborated cognitive structure
• Role of the instructor – make
materials meaningful to learner.
Activate prior knowledge, and
organize instruction to help them
make meaningful connections to
what they already know
• Inputs or preconditions to learning
– potentially meaningful materials,
an orientation toward meaningful
(as opposed to rote) learning,
relevant prior knowledge
• Process of learning – incorporating
new information into cognitive
structure by attaching it to
anchoring ideas through processes
of subsumption, superordinate and
combinatorial learning
> THEORY: Schema
Theory
• Learner outcomes – organized
conceptual knowledge and mental
models that can be used to
interpret events and solve
problems
• Role of the learner – construct
schemata and mental models
(concept mapping)
• Role of the instructor – activate
learners existing schemata. Help
learners develop and refine
appropriate mental models,
manage cognitive load, use
thought demanding activities to
facilitate understanding
• Inputs or preconditions to learning
– preexisting schemata that can be
modified or reconstructed by
analogy to account for new
knowledge. Materials and problems
that do not overload working
memory
• Process of learning – accretion,
tuning, and restructuring of
schemata. Automation of schemata
> STRATEGIES: Memory
and Encoding
• Basic Methods:
− Chunking
− Rehearsal, automaticity
− Imagery
− Self questioning
− Encoding specificity
− Elaboration in encoding
Mnemonics
• Techniques that help us remember
things like names, dates, lists, or
numbers
• Use existing knowledge and
associations to organize or encode
new verbal knowledge
• Not a stand-alone design model,
can easily be incorporated into
most ISD models
• Effective for rote memorization but
require effort
• Methods:
1. Loci
• Requires memorizing a set of
locations, real or imaginary,
to which one can attach
associations
2. Pegwords
• Objects that are common
enough and distinct enough
to form vivid images
• To place these mental
objects in order, the most
common technique has them
rhyme with numbers (1 is a
bun, 2 is a shoe, 3 is a tree,
etc.)
3. First Letters
• Acronym - group of initials
that can be pronounced as a
word
• Acrostic - Learners can try to
form a sentence in which the
first letter of each word is
the same as the first letter of
each item to be remembered
4. Rhymes and Alliteration
5. Keyword
 • For learning foreign words -
consists of an acoustic link
and imagery link
6. Digit-Consonant (Phonetic)
• Generalized system for
turning numbers into words
• Implementation:
1. Identify opportunities
2. Select technique
3. Create mnemonic
4. Insert in lesson design
5. Encourage rehearsal
• Best Uses:
− For learning verbal information -
things that must be recalled
Advance Organizer
• Very general ideas, concepts,
relationships, or structures that
combine and associate the material
about to be learned
• An instructor uses the advance
organizer to arrange material in a
lesson so the most general
concepts are presented first
• Must connect to the learner’s
existing cognitive structure (to help
bridge the gap between what the
learner already knows and the new
material being learned)
• Must be at a higher level of
abstraction than the new content
itself
• May be represented visually or
verbally by a picture, diagram,
story, chart, or oral description.
• Must fit both the content and the
learner
Components:
1. Conduct a needs assessment to
determine existing knowledge
of learners that is relevant to
the new knowledge
2. Based on the results, select
type of organizer
• Comparative organizer – if
new material resembles
existing knowledge
• Expository organizer – if
material is unfamiliar to the
learner
3. Present Advance Organizer
• Identify defining attributes
• Give examples
• Provide context
4. Present Learning Content
• Present material
• Use progressive
differentiation
• Maintain attention
• Make organization explicit
• Make logical order of
learning material explicit
5. Strengthen Cognitive
Organization
• Anchor the new learning
material in the learner’s
existing cognitive structure
• Use integrative reconciliation
• Promote active reception
learning
• Elicit critical approach in
subject matter
• Best Uses:
− Verbal information and
concepts
− Because it’s focused on learning
through presentation, ideal for
training both groups and
individuals, whether by live
lecture, video or computer
− Useful when introducing very
new information or very large
amounts of information
− Useful in both technical training
and “soft skills” training
− Helpful for transition training to
a new system, policy or
procedure
− Use this model to summarize
steps required to perform a
specific skill
>Gagne’s Theory of
Instruction
• Three components:
− A taxonomy of learning
outcomes
− Conditions of learning
− Nine events of instruction
• Schott and Driscoll believe
designers must consider
− The learner
− The learning task (including
desired learning outcomes)
− The learning environment
(learning conditions and
instructional methods)
− The frame of reference (or the
context in which learning is to
occur)
Taxonomy of learning
outcomes

• Three types of knowledge
(cognitive, affective, psychomotor):
− Cognitive domain (cognitive
strategies, intellectual skills,
verbal information)
• Declarative knowledge
• Procedural knowledge
• Conditional knowledge -
metacognitive knowledge
that enables learners to
determine when and how to
apply declarative or
procedural knowledge
• These forms of
knowledge are undetectable
in the learner purely by
observation. Such
knowledge must be inferred
from some behavior that is
observable
• Bloom's taxonomy of
cognitive outcomes:
Knowledge, comprehension,
application, analysis,
synthesis, evaluation
• Categories of learning
outcomes: (Verbal,
intellectual, cognitive)
− Affective domain (attitudes)
− Psychomotor domain (motor
skills)
• Learning outcomes according to
Gagne
− Verbal
• Declarative knowledge
− Intellectual skills
• Equivalent of procedural
knowledge
• Discriminations, Concrete
concepts, Defined concepts,
Rules, Higher order rules
− Cognitive strategies
• Ways in which learners
guide their own learning,
thinking, acting, and feeling.
− Attitudes
• Acquired internal states
that influence the choice of
personal action toward some
class of things, persons, or
events
− Motor skills
Conditions for learning
• Objectives categorized into type of
learning outcome
• Certain critical conditions can
influence learning (p.367 of
Driscoll)
> STRATEGY: Gagne’s Nine
Events of Instruction
• These events should satisfy or
provide the necessary conditions
for learning and serve as the basis
for designing instruction and
selecting appropriate media
• Routine instructional steps that
stimulate the various stages of the
learning process
• Gagné believes all lessons should
include this sequence of events
Sequence of Instruction
1. Gaining attention (reception)
− Orient attention to incoming
information
− Accomplished through abrupt
stimulus change
2. Informing learners of the objective
(expectancy)
− Tell learners what they will be
able to do after learning
3. Stimulating recall of prior learning
(retrieval to working memory)
− As simple as reminding learners
of what they did prior (quick
review)
− Reinstating the prereq
knowledge or skills through
practice activity
4. Presenting the stimulus (selective
perception)
− Present content and create flow
or connections, for encoding the
information into meaningful
chunks
5. Providing learning guidance
(semantic encoding)
6. Eliciting performance (responding)
7. Providing feedback (reinforcement)
8. Assessing performance (retrieval &
reinforcement)
9. Enhancing retention and transfer
(retrieval & generalization)
> STRATEGY: ARCS Model
• A motivational theory
• Not a stand-alone model, but
rather a model designed to
supplement models of instructional
design
• Attention and Relevance - ways to
make instruction stimulating, to
 meet learner needs, and to build
on the learner’s experiences
• Confidence and Satisfaction - ways
of creating positive expectancies of
success and rewards with the
amount and the quality of effort
expended
• Conditions & Strategies:
A. Attention
• Perceptual arousal
• Inquiry arousal
• Variability
R. Relevance
• Goal orientation
• Motive matching
• Familiarity
C. Confidence
• Learning Requirements
• Opportunities for Success
• Personal Responsibility
S. Satisfaction
• Intrinsic Reinforcement
• Extrinsic Rewards
• Equity
• Four Phases of Implementation:
1. Perform an Audience Analysis
2. Develop Motivational Objectives
3. Select Appropriate Strategies
4. Design the Evaluation
Mechanism
• Best Uses:
− When motivation is lacking or
low
− Key elements: Maintain a
balance between motivational
strategies and instructional
strategies, maintain a balance
among motivational strategies,
match strategies to learner
needs
> Bloom’s Taxonomy of
Learning Domains
• Domains:
− Cognitive (knowledge)
− Affective (attitude)
− Psychomotor (skills)
Bloom identified six levels within the
cognitive domain, from the simple
recall or recognition of facts, as the
lowest level, through increasingly
more complex and abstract mental
levels, to the highest order which is
classified as evaluation. A description
of the six levels as well as verb
examples that represent intellectual
activity are listed here. The cognitive
domain was revised in mid-nineties.
The new taxonomy reflects a more
active form of thinking.
Knowledge is defined as
remembering of previously learned
material. This may involve the recall of
a wide range of material, from specific
facts to complete theories, but all that
is required is the bringing to mind of
the appropriate information.
Knowledge represents the lowest level
of learning outcomes in the cognitive
domain.
Verbs: arrange, define, duplicate,
label, list, memorize, name, order,
recognize, relate, recall, repeat,
reproduce state.
Comprehension is defined as the
ability to grasp the meaning of
material. This may be shown by
translating material from one form to
another (words to numbers), by
interpreting material (explaining or
summarizing), and by estimating
future trends (predicting
consequences or effects). These
learning outcomes go one step beyond
the simple remembering of material,
and represent the lowest level of
understanding.
Verbs: classify, describe, discuss,
explain, express, identify, indicate,
locate, recognize, report, restate,
review, select, translate.
Application refers to the ability to
use learned material in new and
concrete situations. This may include
the application of such things as rules,
methods, concepts, principles, laws,
and theories. Learning outcomes in
this area require a higher level of
understanding than those under
comprehension.
Verbs: apply, choose, demonstrate,
dramatize, employ, illustrate,
interpret, operate, practice, schedule,
sketch, solve, use, write.
Analysis refers to the ability to break
down material into its component
parts so that its organizational
structure may be understood. This
may include the identification of the
parts, analysis of the relationships
between parts, and recognition of the
organizational principles involved.
Learning outcomes here represent a
higher intellectual level than
comprehension and application
because they require an
understanding of both the content and
the structural form of the material.
Verbs: analyze, appraise, calculate,
categorize, compare, contrast,
criticize, differentiate, discriminate,
distinguish, examine, experiment,
question, test.
Synthesis refers to the ability to put
parts together to form a new whole.
This may involve the production of a
unique communication (theme or
speech), a plan of operations
(research proposal), or a set of
abstract relations (scheme for
classifying information). Learning
outcomes in this area stress creative
behaviors, with major emphasis on the
formulation of new patterns or
structures.
Verbs: arrange, assemble, collect,
compose, construct, create, design,
develop, formulate, manage, organize,
plan, prepare, propose, set up, write.
Evaluation is concerned with the
ability to judge the value of material
(statement, novel, poem, research
report) for a given purpose. The
judgments are to be based on definite
criteria. These may be internal criteria
(organization) or external criteria
(relevance to the purpose) and the
student may determine the criteria or
be given them. Learning outcomes in
this area are highest in the cognitive
hierarchy because they contain
elements of all the other categories,
plus conscious value judgments based
on clearly defined criteria.
Verbs: appraise, argue, assess, attach,
choose compare, defend estimate,
judge, predict, rate, core, select,
support, value, evaluate.
Constructivism /
Interpretivism
Theorists: Bradsford and the CTGV,
Bruner, Dewey, Grabinger, Lave &
Wenger, Papert, Piaget, Spiro,
Vygotsky, Cunningham, Jonassen,
Perkins
• Learners build personal
interpretation of the world based
on experiences and interactions
• knowledge is constructed through
active exploration, observation,
processing and interpretation
• Learners need to build their own
understanding of new ideas
http://www.nasa.gov/audience/fore
ducators/nasaeclips/5eteachingmo
dels/index.html
• Knowledge is embedded in the
context in which it is used
(authentic tasks in meaningful
realistic settings)
• Create novel and situation-specific
understandings by "assembling"
knowledge from diverse sources
appropriate to the problem at hand
(flexible use of knowledge)
• Believes that there are many ways
(multiple perspectives) of
structuring the world and its
entities
• Believes that meaning is imposed
by the individual rather than
existing in the world independently
• Learners construct knowledge as
they try to make sense of their
experiences
• Constructivism theory is a
psychological theory of knowledge
(epistemology) that argues that
humans construct knowledge and
meaning from their experiences.
Learners structure and restructure
knowledge.
Embedded Theories
• Situated Cognition
• Cognitive Flexibility Theory
• Generative Learning Theory
• Knowledge as Tools
• Social-Cultural Learning
Representations of the
Learning Process
• Inquiry-based
• Discovery learning
>Epistemology:
Constructivism
Goals of Instruction
• Primarily: Reasoning, critical
thinking, understanding and use of
knowledge, self-regulation, mindful
reflection
• Build personal interpretations of
the world based on individual
experiences and interactions
(constantly open to change, cannot
achieve a predetermined, "correct"
meaning, knowledge emerges in
relevant contexts)
• Learning is an active process of
constructing rather than acquiring
knowledge
• Instruction is a process of
supporting knowledge construction
rather than communicating
knowledge
• Do not structure learning for the
task, but engage learner in the
actual use of the tools in real world
situations
• Learning activities should be
authentic and should center around
the “problematic” or “puzzlement”
as perceived by the learner
• The focus is on the process not the
product
• Role of teacher is a mentor not a
“teller”
• Encourage reflective thinking,
higher-order learning skills
• Encourage testing viability of ideas
and seeking alternative views
Instructional Models
• Action Learning
• Anchored Instruction
• Authentic Learning
• Case-Based Learning
• Cognitive Apprenticeship
• Cognitive Flexibility Hypertext
• Collaborative Learning
• Communities of Practice
• Computer-Supported Intentional
Learning Environments (CSILEs)
• Discovery Learning
• Distributed Learning
• Epistemic Games
• Generative learning
• Goal-Based Scenarios (GBSs)
• Inquiry-Based Learning
• Microworlds/Simulations/hypermedi
a The purpose of the learning activity
• MOOs and MUDs
• Problem-Based Learning (PBL)
• REALs
• Reciprocal Teaching
• Situated Learning
• WebQuest(s)
Constructivist Conditions for
Learning
• Checklist
− Complex, realistic, and relevant
learning environments
− Provide social negotiation as an
integral part of learning
− Learner control
− Support multiple perspectives
and the use of multiple modes
of representation
− Encourage ownership in
learning
− Metacognition and nurturing
self-awareness of the
knowledge construction process
– the ability of learners to be
aware of their own role in the
knowledge construction process
− Teachers as coaches
− Scaffolding/authentic
assessment/exploration/student
directed goals
Constructivist Instructional
Principles
• Anchor all learning activities to
a larger task or problem. This
principle focuses on the relevance
of a learning activity to the learner.
or lesson must be relevant to the
learner. Further, in order for the
learning task to be successful, its
purpose must be clear to the
learner and accepted by the
learner.
• Designing an authentic task.
Learning should occur in
environments and under conditions
that present the learner with the
same type of cognitive challenges
and demands as the authentic real-
world environment. In other words,
learning tasks should be authentic
in their cognitive demands. This
principle is similar to Design the
task and the learning environment
to reflect the complexity of the
environment they should be able to
function in at the end of learning.
• Give the learner ownership of
the process used to develop a
solution. By having the learners
set goals and regulate their
learning they will become
 responsible for their own learning. • "Rich" environments multiple
modes of
Further, the learner should be • Visual formats and mental models learning
provided with ownership over the Self- Ownership Open-ended
learning and problem solving regulation in learning learning
Instructional / Learning environment
without great restrictions. Strategies s,
Apparently, it is believed that too collaborative
learning,
much direction on an assignment • Modeling problem-
will not engage the learner in • Collaborative Learning based
authentic thinking and problem learning
− Computer-supported Mindful Self- Bubble
solving.
collaborative learning reflection, awareness dialogue,
• Design the learning environments - Blogs, wikis, epistemic in role plays,
environment to support and flexibility knowledg debates,
LMS&CMS, video sharing, virtual e collaborative
challenge the learner's whiteboards and worlds. Provide constructi learning
thinking. Learning environments problem scaffolding through
on
should be designed to promote virtual access to experts.
immersion and engagement while
• Coaching Concerns with constructivism
supporting and also challenging a
• Scaffolding
learner’s thinking. Instructors play
a primary role by encouraging • Fading • Not all learners are capable or have
critical thinking and coaching. • Problem-Based Learning & goal- the entry skills to pursue
• Encourage testing ideas based scenarios independent projects and open-
against alternative views and • Authentic Learning ended learning environments.
alternative contexts. Learning is • REALs
a social condition and an active • Anchored Instruction > THEORY: Genetic
process, and knowledge is acquired • Cognitive Flexibility Hypertexts Epistemology
through social interaction. • Object-based Learning
Instructors should support the • Open software and course • Cognitive development theory
formation of social environments management tools presented by J. Piaget
conducive to the learning task;
thus, creating collaboration and Instructio Conditio Methods of
• Learner outcomes – physical
supporting the construction of nal goals ns of instruction knowledge, logical-mathematical
knowledge. Learning communities
learning knowledge, social knowledge
Reasoning Complex, Microworlds,
support the process of learning & realistic, problem- • Role of the learner – actively
through the sharing of ideas. Critical and based manipulate objects. Experience
thinking relevant learning cognitive conflict. Invent and
learning
Implications for Instructional environme reinvent knowledge through
Design nts interaction with the world and
Retention, Social Collaborative
understan negotiatio learning,
people surrounding him or her
• Authentic assessment methods ding, and n bubble • Role of the instructor – provide a
use dialogue rich learning environment that
• Learning through exploration Cognitive Multiple Hypermedia
supports activity of the learner and
• Problem-oriented activities flexibility perspectiv
es and encourages interactions with peers.
 Ask probing questions to make
children aware of conflicts and
inconsistencies in their thinking
• Inputs or preconditions to learning
– concrete materials to manipulate,
cognitive conflicts to stimulate
disequilibrium
• Process of learning – development
of cognitive structuring process
through 4 stages (sensorimotor,
pre-operational, concrete
operational, formal operational)
involving processes of assimilation,
accommodation, and equilibriation.
Global restructuring occurs through
cognitive conflict
Alternative theories to
Cognitive Development:
• Neo-Pieagentian (Case)
• Computational Model (Klahr)
• Componential Analysis (Sternberg)
• Framework Theory (Carey)
• Variability, Choice, and Change
(Siegler)
> THEORY: Interactional
Theories of Cognitive
Development
• Cognitive development theories
put forward by Bruner and
Vygotsky
• Learner outcomes – thinking,
conceptual knowledge, ability to
use the tools of one’s culture,
awareness of one’s own thinking
• Role of the learner – interact with
the instructor, peers, and
sociocultural environment to solve
problems
• Role of the instructor – involve
learners in a process of inquiry and
problem solving (discovery and
problem-solving learning). Ask
medium-level questions to provoke
cognitive conflict. Engage learners
in socially organized labor activities
relevant to their culture and
learning partners appropriate for
the desired goals of instruction
• Inputs or preconditions to learning
– a “well-prepared mind”, culturally
relevant tools and prior knowledge
• Process of learning – for burner, a
progression through successively
more sophisticated modes of
thinking (enactive [tactile], iconic
[images], and symbolic [symbols]).
For Vygotsky, mediation to
apprehend tools of the culture,
internalization of socially-mediated
understanding to become personal
knowledge. For both, learning
serves to pull development along
> THEORY: Situated
Cognition (or Situated
Learning)
• Learning is situated; that is, as it
normally occurs, learning is
embedded within activity, context
and culture
• Usually unintentional rather than
deliberate. Lave and Wenger
(1991) call this a process of
“legitimate peripheral
participation.”
• Knowledge needs to be presented
in authentic contexts — settings
and situations that would normally
involve that knowledge.
• Social interaction and collaboration
are essential component —
learners become involved in a
“community of practice” which
embodies certain beliefs and
behaviors to be acquired (a joint
enterprise, a shared repertoire,
mutual engagement).
• As the beginner or novice moves
from the periphery of a community
to its center, he or she becomes
more active and engaged within
the culture and eventually assumes
the role of an expert.
• Brown, Collins & Duguid (1989)
emphasize the idea of cognitive
apprenticeship: “Cognitive
apprenticeship supports learning
in a domain by enabling students
to acquire, develop and use
cognitive tools in authentic domain
activity. Learning, both outside and
inside school, advances through
collaborative social interaction and
the social construction of
knowledge.”
• Learner outcomes – ability to use
the concepts and tools of a
community of practice. Contribute
to invention of new tools and
practices within the community
• Role of the learner – participate
increasingly in the activities of a
community of practice
• Role of the instructor – model
appropriate practices as a “senior
 partner” in the learning enterprise.
Nurture semiosis and promote
reflexivity in learning. Help learners
value participation in a community
of practice
• Inputs or preconditions to learning
– materials and activities of the
culture or community of practice
• Process of learning – Semiosis, or
sign activity (the process of
interpreting and creating signs and
sign systems); legitimate
peripheral participation
>STRATEGY: Discovery
Learning
• Discovery learning is inquiry-based
learning where learners are
presented with problem solving
situations where the learner draws
on his or her own past experience
and existing knowledge to discover
facts and relationships and new
truths to be learned
Discovery learning continuum
• From guided discovery to pure
discovery
− Pure Discovery - The student
receives representative
problems to solve with minimal
teacher guidance
− Guided Discovery - The student
receives problems to solve, but
the teacher provides hints and
directions about how to solve
the problem to keep the student
on track
>STRATEGY:
Constructivism as a
Strategy
• Objectives:
1. Anchor all learning activities to
a larger task
2. Support the learner in
developing ownership of the
task
3. Design an authentic task
4. Design the task to reflect the
complexity of the environment
the learner will face
5. Support and challenge the
learner’s thinking
6. Encourage testing ideas against
alternative views and
alternative contexts
7. Provide opportunity for
reflection on the content
learned and the learning
process
• Design Steps:
1. Observation
• Students make
observations of authentic
artifacts anchored in
authentic situations
2. Interpretation Construction
• Students construct
interpretations of
observations and arguments
for the validity of their
interpretations
3. Contextualization
• Students access
background and contextual
materials of various sorts to
aid interpretation and
argumentation
4. Cognitive Apprenticeship
• Students serve as
apprentices to teachers to
master observation,
interpretation, and
contextualization
5. Collaboration
• Students collaborate in
observation, interpretation,
and contextualization
6. Multiple Interpretation
• Students gain cognitive
flexibility by being exposed
to multiple interpretations
7. Multiple Manifestations
• Students gain
transferability by seeing
multiple manifestations of
the same interpretations
• Best Uses:
− Best practices involve use of
advanced technologies –
distance learning, distance
collaboration projects, computer
simulation environments, and
hypermedia searches
− It is possible to merge
objectivist and constructivist
theory in creating course
> STRATEGY: Adult
Learning Principles
• Andragogy - the art and science of
helping adults learn
• Pedagogy - the art and science of
teaching children
• Adults are active participants in
their own learning
• The role of the instructor is that of
facilitator and resource
• A learning contract can be part of
the process
• Basic Assumptions that Distinguish
Adult Learners from Children:
1. Need to Know
• Children depend on the
teacher’s direction; adults
need to know why they need
to learn something
2. Self-concept
• Children are naturally
dependent; adults have a
deep need to be self-
directing
3. Experience
• Children’s experience is
limited; adults’ broad
experience is a valuable
learning resources
4. Readiness to Learn
• Children’s readiness is
more subject centered;
adult’s readiness is more
related to skills and
knowledge needed to fulfill
their roles in society
5. Orientation to Learning
• Children’s orientation is
subject centered; adults are
problem-centered
6. Motivation
• Children’s motivations
are external; adults have
some external motivators
(pay, raises, promotions) but
they respond more to
internal motivators (job 5. Evaluate – determine how much
satisfaction, better quality of learning and understanding has
life) taken place
• Principles:
1. Prepare the learner
2. Set the climate
3. Involve learners in mutual
planning
4. Involve learners in diagnosing
their own learning needs
5. Involve learners in formulating
Informal and
their own learning objectives Postmodernist
6. Involve learners in designing
learning plans
Theories
7. Help learners carry out their
• Informal theories of education may
learning plans
attempt to break down the learning
8. Involve learning in evaluating
process in pursuit of practicality.
learning
> Theory: Informal
>Definitions of terms
Learning
• Microworlds are small but complete
subsets of real environments that • Learning in an informal setting
promote discovery and exploration. outside of the classroom
Different than simulations because
they embody the simplest working Tools:
model of a domain or system. • Podcasts / netcasts / vidcasts
• Blogs
>Strategy: 5E • Social networking
• RSS
1. Engage – to peak interest • Wikis
2. Explore – involve learners
• Search tools
3. Explain – learners communicate
• Widgets
what they have learned and figure
out what it means
4. Elaborate – use knowledge to Biological Basis for
continue to explore Learning

• Cognitive competence depends
partly on biological capacity and
partly upon experience
• A multimodal approach to
instruction that includes activities
that draw upon different sensory
modes is optimal
• Enriched environments and time
for practice
• Brain researchers stress
cooperative interaction between
the two hemispheres of the brain
• Brain researchers stress
cooperative interaction between
the two hemispheres of the brain.
• Learners having difficulty
understanding instructional
presentation in one mode may
benefit from the same presentation
in an alternative mode. Meaning
can be conveyed differently in
different modes can also be
valuable for learning
>Model of the brain
(Triune)
• The brain stem
− Known as the “reptilian brain”
− “Subconscious” control over
body & “fight or flight”
− “Downshift” into this area of the
brain when responding to
perceived life-threatening
conditions, when this occurs
learning cannot take place
• The limbic system
− Related to emotions
− Has visual memory, language is
limited to yells, screams, and
expletives
− Threats cause “downshift” but
not “blanking out” stage of
brain stem
• The cerebral cortex
− Information processor of brain
− Slowest of three levels
− Learners must be in this level
for learning to take place; thus,
learning environment must be
absent of threats
>Brain/Mind-Based
Learning Theories
• Multiple, complex, and concrete
experiences are essential for
meaningful learning and teaching
• Principles
− The brain is a complex adaptive
system
− The brain is a social brain
− The search for meaning is
innate
− The search for meaning occurs
through patterning
− Emotions are critical to
patterning
− Every brain simultaneously
perceives and creates parts and
wholes
− Learning involves both focused
attention and peripheral
perception
− Learning always involves
conscious and unconscious
processes
− We have at least two ways of
organizing memory
− Learning is developmental
− Complex learning is enhanced
by challenge and inhibited by
threat
− Every brain is uniquely
organized
• Seven stages to planning brain-
based learning. They match fairly
well with Gagne’s Nine Events.
1. Pre-exposure
2. Preparation – curiosity and
excitement
3. Initiation and acquisition –
overwhelm learner with
information and give them time
to figure it out
4. Elaboration – help learner refine
and process information
5. Incubation and memory
encoding
6. Verification and confidence
checking
7. Celebration and interpretation
>Brain-Based Education
• Melds many theories into one (a
conglomerate) based on how the
brain learns (neuroscience applied
to teaching)
• Primary principles
− Uniqueness – every single brain
is totally unique
− Impact of threat or high stress
can alter and impair learning
and even kill brain cells
− Information is stored and
retrieved through multiple
memory and neural pathways
− All learning is mind-body –
movement, foods, attentional
cycles, drugs and chemicals all
have powerful modulating
effects on learning
− The brain is a complex and
adaptive system – effective
change involves the entire
complex system
− Patterns and programs drive our
understanding – intelligence is
the ability to elicit and to
construct useful patterns
− The brain is meaning-driven –
meaning is more important to
the brain than information.
− Learning is often rich and non-
conscious – we process both
parts and wholes
simultaneously and are affected
a great deal by peripheral
influences.
− The brain develops better in
concert with other brains –
intelligence is valued in the
context of the society in which
we live.
− The brain develops with various
stages of readiness.
− Enrichment – the brain can grow
new connections at any age.
Complex, challenging
experiences with feedback are
best. Cognitive skills develop
better with music and motor
skills.
• Primary strategies:
− Orchestrated immersion & rich
simulating environments make
a subject matter a part of their
world
− Creating relaxed alertness
reduces stress and create a
peak learning state
− Active processing – get learner
activated and involved in
learning
− Group learning and
conversation
− Flexibility, novelty, and
variation
− Active/passive places where
students can go for reflection
and retreat away from others
Humanist (Confluent
Education)
>Theory: Humanism
Theorists: Maslow, Rogers, Knowles
• Humanism is a
paradigm/philosophy/pedagogical
approach that believes learning is
viewed as a personal act to fulfill
one’s potential
• Focuses on the human freedom,
dignity, and potential
• A central assumption of humanism
is that people act with
intentionality and values
• This is in contrast to the
behaviorist notion of operant
conditioning (which argues that all
behavior is the result of the
application of consequences) and
the cognitive psychologist belief
that the discovering knowledge or
constructing meaning is central to
learning
• A primary purpose of humanism
could be described as the
development of self-actualized,
autonomous people
• Self-actualization, teacher as
facilitator, affect
− Learning is student centered
and personalized, and the
educator’s role is that of a
facilitator. Affective and
cognitive needs are key, and
the goal is to develop self-
actualized people in a
cooperative, supportive
environment
>Maslow’s Hierarchy of
Needs
• A theory of motivation
• In a 1943 paper called A Theory of
Human Motivation, Maslow
presented the idea that human
actions are directed toward goal
attainment
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs has
often been represented in a
 hierarchical pyramid with five
levels. The four levels (lower-order
needs) are considered
physiological needs, while the top
level is considered growth needs
• The lower level needs need to be
satisfied before higher-order needs
can influence behavior
− Self-actualization (highest) –
morality, creativity, problem
solving, etc
− Esteem – includes confidence,
self-esteem, achievement,
respect, etc
− Belongingness – includes love,
friendship, intimacy, family, etc
− Safety – includes security of
environment, employment,
resources, health, property, etc.
− Physiological (lowest) –
includes air, food, water, sex,
sleep, other factors towards
homeostasis, etc
>Theory: Experiential
Learning
• A four-stage cyclical theory of
learning, Kolb’s experiential
learning theory is a holistic
perspective that combines
experience, perception, cognition,
and behavior.
− concrete experience (or “DO”)
− reflective observation (or
“OBSERVE”)
− abstract conceptualization (or
“THINK”)
− active experimentation (or 4. Self-initiated learning is the
“PLAN”) most lasting and pervasive.
• Four learning styles which Condition of learning
correspond to these stages:
− assimilators, who learn better 1. Setting a positive climate for
when presented with sound learning
logical theories to consider 2. Clarifying the purposes of the
− convergers, who learn better learner(s)
when provided with practical 3. Organizing and making available
applications of concepts and learning resources,
theories 4. Balancing intellectual and emotional
components of learning
− accommodators, who learn
5. Sharing feelings and thoughts with
better when provided with
learners but not dominating
“hands-on” experiences
− divergers, who learn better
Role of facilitator
when allowed to observe and
collect a wide range of
• To Rogers, experiential learning is
information
equivalent to personal change and
growth. Rogers feels that all human
Goals and preconditions
beings have a natural propensity to
learn; the role of the teacher is to
• Experiential learning addresses the
facilitate such learning
needs and wants of the learner. A
learner that is motivated to
Instructional strategies
achieve a specific goal will be more
likely to learn than an individual
1. The student participates completely
assigned to read for a grade.
in the learning process and has control
Principles
over its nature and direction
2. Learning is primarily based upon
1. Significant learning takes place
direct confrontation with practical,
when the subject matter is relevant
social, personal or research problems
to the personal interests of the
3. Self-evaluation is the principal
student
method of assessing progress or
2. Learning which is threatening to
success. Rogers also emphasizes the
the self (e.g., new attitudes or
importance of learning to learn and an
perspectives) are more easily
openness to change.
assimilated when external threats
are at a minimum
Assessment method
3. Learning proceeds faster when
the threat to the self is low
• Student engages in self-
assessment. The teacher provides
guidance as needed.
Cooperative learning
• A cooperative group has a sense of
individual accountability that
means that all students need to
know the material or spell well for
the whole group to be successful
• Putting students into groups does
not necessarily gain a cooperative
relationship; it has to be structured
and managed by the teacher or
professor
Conditions of cooperative
learning (elements of positive
cooperative learning
• Clearly perceived positive
interdependence
• Considerable promotive (face-to-
face) interaction
• Clearly perceived individual
accountability and personal
responsibility to achieve the
group’s goals
• Frequent use of the relevant
interpersonal and small-group skills
• Frequent and regular group
processing of current functioning to
improve the group’s future
effectiveness
Learning Styles
• Every human has a mixture of
learning styles and preferences
• Whether or not learning
personalities and preferences can
be categorized as learning styles is
highly debatable and so far
unproven. There are more
important issues to consider than
unproven individual learning styles
• Learning styles are generally
considered to be situational and
based partly on individuals’ past
experiences with different styles of
learning and on their physiological
makeup (neural and otherwise)
> Theory: Multiple
Intelligences Theory
• Seven intelligences are noted, but
Garder has stated that the theory
of multiple intelligences is not
limited to the original seven. Other
suggested intelligences are
naturalist (natural environment),
spiritual/existential, and moral
(ethics, humanity, value of life)
• Learners have preferred learning
styles, as well as their behavioral
and working styles, and natural
strengths
• A person’s strength is also a
learning channel. A person’s
weakness is not a good learning
channel
• Developing a person's strengths
will increase their response to the
learning experience, which helps
them to develop their weaknesses
as well as their strengths
• Intelligence types and capabilities:
1. Linguistic – words and language
2. Logical/mathematical – logic
and numbers
3. Musical – music, sound, rhythm
4. Bodily/kinesthetic – body
movement control
5. Visual/spatial – images and
space
6. Interpersonal – other people’s
feelings
7. Intrapersonal – self awareness
> Model: VAK (VARK
or VACT)
• Model and accompanying tests to
understand and explain people’s
preferred ways of learning
• Good companion to the Multiple
Intelligences Theory
• Refers to visual-auditory-
kinesthetic, but other common
terms are visual-auditory-
tactile/kinesthetic or visual-
auditory-physical
• Does not overlay the multiple
intelligences theory, rather
provides a different perspective
• According to the model, most
people possess a dominant
preferred learning style, though
some are mixed and some are
balanced
• VARK learning styles
− Visual (V) learners prefer to
read/write (R), see, follow, and
look
 − Auditory/aural (A) learners
prefer to listen, ask, call,
verbally explain, and discuss
− Kinesthetic/physical/tactile (K)
learners like to have a go, do,
try, play, imagine, test-drive,
demonstrate, and follow
− Multimodal are individuals with
multiple preferences
• VARK questionnaire
− Active learners learn best by
doing
− Sensing and intuitive learners
prefer discovering possibilities
and relationships
− Sequential learners tend to gain
understanding in linear steps
• Meyers-Briggs Type Indicator
"MBTI"
− Introverts tend to prefer to
focus on inward thoughts and
feelings
− Extroverts tend to prefer to talk
aloud and discuss with others
• Eight ways of knowing
− Verbal/linguistic
− Logical mathematical
− Visual/spatial
− Bodily kinesthetic
− Musical/rhythmic
− Naturalist
− Interpersonal
− Intrapersonal
− Multiple intelligences
Connectivism
• Decision-making is itself a learning
• Unlike other learning theories that process. Choosing what to learn
are primarily concerned with the and the meaning of incoming
actual process of learning information is seen through the
connectivism is concerned with the lens of a shifting reality. While
value of what is being learned there is a right answer now, it may
• A need to evaluate the worthiness be wrong tomorrow due to
of learning something alterations in the information
• Competence is derived from climate affecting the decision
forming connections
− Stronger connections and more
well developed networks equate
to greater competence
− Weaker connections and less
well developed networks equate
to lesser competence
• Decisions are based on rapidly
altering foundations
Principles of connectivism
• Learning and knowledge rests in
diversity of opinions
• Learning is a process of connecting
specialized nodes or information
sources
• Learning may reside in non-human
appliances
• Capacity to know more is more
critical than what is currently
known
• Nurturing and maintaining
connections is needed to facilitate
continual learning
• Ability to see connections between
fields, ideas, and concepts is a core
skill.
• Currency (accurate, up-to-date
knowledge) is the intent of all
connectivist learning activities
Conscious Competence Learning Matrix
• Four primary stages:
Competence
Conscious
Learner achieves 'conscious competence' in a skill
when they can perform it reliably at will.
The person will need to concentrate and think in
order to perform the skill.
The person can perform the skill without assistance.
The person will not reliably perform the skill unless
thinking about it - the skill is not yet 'second nature'
or 'automatic'.
The person should be able to demonstrate the skill
to another, but is unlikely to be able to teach it well
to another person.
The person should ideally continue to practice the
new skill, and if appropriate commit to becoming
'unconsciously competent' at the new skill.
Practice is the single most effective way to move
from stage 3 to 4.
Incompetence
The person becomes aware of the existence and relevance
of the skill.
The person is therefore also aware of their deficiency in
this area, ideally by attempting or trying to use the skill.
The person realizes that by improving their skill or ability
in this area their effectiveness will improve.
Ideally the person has a measure of the extent of their
deficiency in the relevant skill, and a measure of what
level of skill is required for their own competence.
The person ideally makes a commitment to learn and
practice the new skill, and to move to the 'conscious
competence' stage.
 Unconscious
The skill becomes so practiced that it enters the
unconscious parts of the brain - it becomes 'second
nature'.
Common examples are driving, sports activities,
typing, manual dexterity tasks, listening and
communicating.
It becomes possible for certain skills to be performed
while doing something else, for example, knitting
while reading a book.
The person might now be able to teach others in the
skill concerned, although after some time of being
unconsciously competent the person might actually
have difficulty in explaining exactly how they do it -
the skill has become largely instinctual.
This arguably gives rise to the need for long-standing
unconscious competence to be checked periodically
against new standards.
The person is not aware of the existence or relevance of
the skill area.
The person is not aware that they have a particular
deficiency in the area concerned.
The person might deny the relevance or usefulness of the
new skill.
The person must become conscious of their incompetence
before development of the new skill or learning can begin.
The aim of the trainee or learner and the trainer or teacher
is to move the person into the 'conscious competence'
stage, by demonstrating the skill or ability and the benefit
that it will bring to the person's effectiveness.

• Possible fifth stage:

− ‘Conscious competence of unconscious competence', which describes a person's ability to recognize and develop
unconscious incompetence in others

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Aspect Behaviourist Cognitivist Humanist Social and situational

Learning Thorndike, Koffka, Maslow, Bandura, Lave and Wenger,

theorists Pavlov, Kohler, Rogers Salomon
Watson, Lewin, Piaget,
Guthrie, Hull, Ausubel,
Tolman, Bruner,
Skinner Gagne
View of the Change in Internal A personal Interaction /observation in social
learning behaviour mental act to fulfil contexts. Movement from the
process process potential. periphery to the centre of a
(including community of practice
insight,
information
processing,
memory,
perception
Locus of Stimuli in Internal Affective and Learning is in relationship
learning external cognitive cognitive between people and
environment structuring needs environment.
Purpose in Produce Develop Become self- Full participation in communities
education behavioural capacity and actualized, of practice and utilization of
change in skills to learn autonomous resources
desired better
direction
Educator's Arranges Structures Facilitates Works to establish communities
role environment content of development of practice in which
to elicit learning of the whole conversation and participation
desired activity person can occur.
response
Manifestatio Behavioural Cognitive Andragogy Socialization
ns in adult objectives development
learning Self-directed learning Social participation
Competency -based Intelligence, learning
education and memory as Associationalism
function of age
Skill development and Conversation
training Learning how to learn