Lab 1 The Geiger Counter

September 1, 2016
TA: Malkinski, Leszek
PHYS 1065
Zachary Ferger

I.

Introduction

In this lab we used the Geiger counter to take counts of different radiation sources.
From these counts, we observed the pulse height against the ionization type and
energy, pulse height and counting curve against high voltage, beta attenuation
coefficients by measuring counts through plates of aluminum, and Geiger counter
dead times by measuring them from the oscilloscope as well as calculating them
using the two-source method. In experiment one, we saw that using different
sources of radiation, we saw no real difference in the pulse heights from the Geiger
counter.
Upon completion of this lab we shall understand how to properly
Use a Geiger counter to measure ionizing radiation,
Determine the characteristic curve for a particular Geiger counter, and
Properly examine the intensity of radiation as a function of distance from
source.

II.

Theory

Radiation has an inherent property capable of ionizing gases. This is measured by

the Geiger counter in the form of current due to the decay of the radioactive
material. Every element has a defined number of positive protons and have
isotopes of the species in the form of neutron differences. This can be shown in
carbon where Carbon 12 has 6 protons and 6 neutrons while Carbon 14 has 6
protons and 8 neutrons. Radioactivity is the decay of a molecule due to instability
and that decay is measured in half-lives where a half-life is the time it takes the
original species to decay into a more stable species. There are three types of
radiation: alpha, beta and gamma. Alpha radiation is the most common and is
simply when an element such as polonium [Po] decays giving off an alpha [ ]
particle (2 protons and 2 neutrons) and converting itself into the more stable
element lead [Pb].
210
84

Po yields

206
82

Pb+ 2

There are 2 types of beta radiation, beta plus and beta minus. In beta minus,
a neutron is converted into a proton, and an electron and anti-neutrino are given
off. In other words, the parent element is converted into a new element, due to the
proton addition, and keeps the same total mass while giving off an electron and
anti-neutrino.
T
P

Par ent yields P+1 Daughter + 1e + 0

Where T is the total of neutrons and protons, P is the amount of protons, e is

the electron/positron and v is a neutrino/anti-neutrino.
In beta plus, a proton is converted into a neutron, in addition a positron and
neutrino are given off effectively giving off a positive particle and becoming an
isotope of an element with one less proton.
T
P

Parent yields P1Daughter + 1e + 0 v

This can also occur by electron capture where a free electron is pulled into
the atom and only a neutron and neutrino are produced.

T
P

Parent + 1e yields P1 Daughter +1n + 0 v

Gamma decay is composed of high-energy photons where the molecule does

not change but a gamma ray is emitted due to a highly excited state releasing its
energy to form a lower, more stable state.
T
P

Parent yields TP Parent +

In the decay of strontium 90, the Geiger counter detects the beta particles in
the form of the electrons given off from the beta minus radiation. The electrons are
capable of creating a cumulative ionization where the free electrons ionize the
argon matrix inside a cylinder in the Geiger counter causing an avalanche of
ionizing energy. Instead, the energy is carried up a thin wire inside a tube that has
a positive charge in comparison to the cylinder. The electrons are measured in a
circuit, and the counter ticks per a certain amount of electrons. The potential
difference in the wire must be high enough to attract the electrons, but not too
much to where it damages the instrument. The best count will occur in the plateau
range of the tube but discharge and damage will occur if you it goes higher than
this. The count rate at the plateau range will be inverse to its radius squared due to
the fact that the number of particles entering the wire will be equal to the same
number of particles sent in every other direction from the source in a sphere.
Count +

1
r2

III.

Analysis
Table 1.1 Characteristic Curve for Geiger-Muller Tube
Tube Voltage (v)
845
865
885
905
925
945
965
985
1005
1025
1045
1065
1085
1105

Count Rate (per half-minute)

206
264
260
274
303
313
318
317
311
344
387
436
480
560

Table 1.2 Count Rate vs Distance from Source

Distance (cm) Count Rate (per 0.5 min)
6
378
7
294
8
220
9
208
10
164
12
132
14
96
16
67
18
62
20
62
22
45

Avg Count Rate-Background

367
283
209
197
153
121
85
56
51
51
34

Graph 1 Characteristic Curve for Geiger-Muller Tube

Graph 1.2 Count Rate vs Distance from Source

IV.

Calculations

Graph 1.3 Log(distance from source) vs Log(count rate-background)

V.

Questions
1. What three types of particles or rays are commonly seen as emissions
during radioactive decay? Name each, give its symbol, and briefly
explain its nature.
Alpha radiation: () Alpha particles are made of 2 protons and 2
neutrons. This means that they have a charge of +2 and a mass of 4
amu (atomic mass units). Alpha particles are relatively slow and heavy,
and because they have a large charge, alpha particles ionize other atoms
strongly.
Beta radiation: () Beta particles have a charge of minus 1, and a mass
of about 1/2000th of a proton. This makes a beta particle the same as an
electron. They are fast and light. Beta particles ionize atoms they pass,
but not as strongly as alpha particles do.
Gamma radiation: () Gamma rays are waves, not particles. This means
that they have no mass and no charge. Gamma rays do not directly
ionize other atoms, although they may cause atoms to emit other
particles that will then cause ionization.
2.

90
38

spontaneously undergoes beta-minus decay. Write an equation

for its decay reaction, including the symbol for the element in which
90
converts.
38 Sr
Sr

90
38

Sr

90
39

0
1

3. What does an avalanche of electrons in a Geiger-Mller tube mean?

A Geiger-Mller tube consists of a sealed metallic tube filled with
argon or another noble gas mixed with a small amount of alcohol vapor
or bromine gas. When a radioactive particle enters the tube it ionizes an
argon atom. The resulting electron is accelerated towards the metal
wire or anode. As the electron approaches the metal wire it experiences
an increasing electric field strength, which in turn applies a greater
accelerating force on the electron. The accelerating force becomes so
strong that on collision with other argon atoms the electron can ionize

them. The electrons from these ionizations can go onto generate a

cascade of further electrons, an effect called the avalanche effect.
4. What is meant by dead time of a Geiger-Mller tube?
Dead time is the interval after the initiation of a normal size pulse
during which the tube is insensitive to further ionization events.
5. There is probably a discrepancy between the expected value of -2 and
the measured value for the power in the inverse relationship between N
and r.
(a) Why do we expect to find an inverse square relationship between the
count rate and the distance from the source? What role does the
assumption that the source is a point source have?
The inverse square law is important as it gives a measure of how
intensity of radiation falls off with distance from a source. This has
implications for the storage and use of radioactive sources.

(b)Discuss the role of the point source assumption on this discrepancy.

For a point source located a distance r from the tube, which emits
equally in all directions, the count rate by the Geiger-Mller tube
should be inversely proportional to r2.
(c) Discuss the role of the dead time of the Geiger-Mller tube.
Dead time is the interval after the initiation of a normal size pulse
during which the tube is insensitive to further ionization events.