Special Theory of Relativity

1.

Frame
reference

2.

Relative velocity
Vab
Galilean
Transformation
Equations
Ether

3.
4.

of

5.

Implications
MichelsonMorley
Experiment

6.

Postulates
of
the
special
theory
of
relativity

7.

Relativity
time
simultaneity

8.

Proper time
(Formula list)

9.

Proper length
(Formula list)
Rest Mass

1
0
1
1

of

Relativistic
mass

1
2

Relativistic
momentum

1
3.
1
4

Relativistic KE

1
5

of

Total relativistic
energy (Formula
list)

Is a set of axes that enable a position of a point in space to be defined

at any instant of time.
An inertial frame of reference is one in which Newtons first law of
inertia holds. (unaccelerated frame of reference)
Vab: the velocity of A as observed by B
X=X-Vt
(t=t=0, x and x axes coincide)
(V is +ve if moving in +ve x direction)
It permeated all of space and could serve as an absolute frame of
reference.
It is thought necessary for the propagation of light waves.
1. There is no evidence for the existence of the ether. Hence there is
no absolute frame of reference and all motion is relative.
2. The motion of earth has no effect on the propagation of light. The
velocity of light in a vacuum is c regardless of the chosen frame of
reference.
3. Galilean transformation does not apply to relative velocity
approaching the velocity of light.
1. Laws of physics are the same in all inertial frame of reference. (no
preferred frame of reference exists and impossible to detect
absolute motion)
2. Speed of light in vacuum has the same value in all inertial frame
of reference regardless of the velocity of the observer and the
light source
Events A, B occur near an observers location and time coordinates
and tA and tB respectively as measured by the observers clock. If
tA=tB, the two events are said to occur simultaneously.
Whether two spatially separated events occur at the same time is
not absolute, but depends on the observer's reference frame.
When two events occur at the same location in an inertial frame of
reference, the time interval between them measured in that frame is
called the proper time tp
Is the length of an object measured in the inertial frame of reference
in which the object is at rest
Mass of a body when it is at rest is its rest mass. Its corresponding
energy is given by E=m0c2
The mass m of a body in motion is larger by a factor of than the
rest mass energy.
M= M0
P= mv
Must satisfy two conditions:
1. Linear momentum of an isolated system must be conserved in all
collisions
2. The relativistic value calculated must approach the classical value
mv as v approaches a value much smaller than c
K=(-1) m0c2
Of a particle in motion is the sum of its rest-mass energy and its
relativistic KE
E= m0c2
E2=(m0c2)2+(pc)2
p/E=v/c2

Quantum Theory of Light

1

Ideal Blackbody

Idea blackbody
radiation

Property
blackbody
radiation:

Plancks
hypothesis
blackbody
radiation

of

of

Compton Shift

Bohr Theory of
discrete energy
level

Is an object that absorbs all radiation fall on it. It reflects no light

hence appears completely dark.
The radiation from an object or system that absorbs all radiation
incident upon it and re-radiate energy characteristic of this radiating
system only and not dependent on the type of radiation incident upon
it.
1. Overall intensity of radiation is higher for a higher equilibrium
temperature T.
2. Higher intensity of radiation shifts towards shorter wavelength for
higher temperature. (the glow colour changes from red to yellow
to blue. Even as the peak wavelength moves into ultra violet,
enough radiation continues to emit in the blue wavelength and the
body appear blue)
Total energy of all these oscillators can be divided into finite number
of equal parts, determined by a constant of nature and proportional to
the frequency of the oscillators.
At long wavelength, the energy states are closer together and many
modes can be excited which is close to the classical case of
continuous energy.
At short wavelength the probability of one mode being excited is very
low due to the further apart energy state. The energy of a wave
cannot increase continuously.
Experiment results showed two peaks correspond to two different
wavelengths.
Classical Rayleigh scattering: X-ray should force target electron
to oscillate and re radiate at all direction without changing
wavelength, rather than a single direction with second
wavelength. (dominant with lower energy photon)
Compton postulates: X-ray behaves like a particle (photon)
carrying energy and momentum. Both momentum and
energy are conserved.
First peak: photon interacting with the whole atom, M>>>m e,
Compton shift effect is negligible
Basic Assumption:
1. Electron in an atom moves in a circular orbit about the nucleus
under Coulomb attraction btw electron and nucleus, following in
classical mechanics.
2. An electron can only move in tan orbit for which its orbital angular
momentum id=s an integral multiple of h/2
3. The electron orbiting the atom does not radiate electromagnetic
energy. The total energy remains constant.
4. An electron, initially moving in an orbit of total energy of E2,
discontinuously changes its motion so that it moves in an orbit of
lower energy, E1 will emit an electromagnetic radiation of
frequency f, equal to quantity (E2-E2)/h

Matter Waves
1

Quantum

Wave-particle
Duality

Principle

of

Is a discrete quantity of energy proportional in magnitude to the

frequency of the radiation it represents
All objects exhibit at times a wave-like nature, and a t other times a
particle-like nature, depending upon the circumstances of the
experiment.
Wave and particle models are complementary; if measurement proves

Complementarit
y
Wave
function

the wave character of radiation or matter, it is impossible to prove the

particle character in the same experiment and vice versa.
A mathematical function representing the de Broglie matter wave
Also a probability amplitude of the matter wave associate with the
particle at position and time representing by x and t
(x,t)=Asin(kx-t), k=2/ (wave number)(phase difference???)

||2

Diffraction
pattern
with
circular aperture
nSin1=1.22/
D
Rayleigh
Criterion

Probability density
The probability per unit volume that the particle will be found at any
given point in the volume
Probability Pab is the area under the curve of || 2 against x btw x=a
and x=b.
A central bright spot surrounded by a series of bright and dark rings

7
8

9.

Limit
resolution

1
0

X-ray diffraction
to probe crystal
structure

1
1

Braggs
equation
2dsin=n
Davison Germer

1
2

of

1: Angular radius D: Aperture Diameter

Two objects are barely(just) resolved if the central maximum of one
diffraction pattern coincides with the first minimum of the other
diffraction pattern.
Sin1=1.22/D (: angular separation/limiting angle of resolution)
When is small, sin
So =1.22/D
The minimum separation of two object that can be just resolved by an
optical instrument is limitation of resolution for that instrument.
The smaller the limitation of resolution, the greater the resolving
power of the instrument.
Resolving power is a measure of the ability of an optical instrument
to form separable images of close object.
X-ray are of very short wavelength of 10-10m. The atomic spacing in a
solid is also known to be about 10-10m. The regular array of atoms in a
crystal could act as a 3D diffraction grating. The regularity is
responsible for the distinct diffraction pattern.
A collimated beam of monochromatic x-rays is incident on a crystal.
The diffracted beams are very intense in certain direction.
(constructive interference).
The resulting interference pattern is the superposition of all scattered
waves.
d: spacing between planes of atoms
: grazing angle
(must be smaller than 2d/n)
Dsin=n
D: lattice spacing between the vertical rows
=2(90-grazing angle)

Quantum Mechanics
1

Conditions
must satisfy:

Comparing
Finite
with
Infinite walls

1.
2.
3.
1.

must be continuous
d/dx must be continuous
satisfies normalization condition.
There is probability of finding the particle outside the potential
wall
2. Wavelength of each wave function is longer than it would be with
an infinite wall. From p=h/, each energy level ,including the
ground level, is lower for the finite wall than an infinite deep wall
with the same width.

Transmission
Coefficient

Radioactive
decay of atomic
nuclei
with
alpha particle

STM

Quantum
Harmonic
Oscillator

Zero-point
energy

Correspondence
Principle

3. Finite walls have finite number of bound states and corresponding

energy levels, which is infinite for infinite walls.
The probability that a particle approaching the barrier will
successfully tunnel through it, and is given by the two probability
density functions
U0: Height of potential energy barrier
The alpha particle is bound to the other nucleons by the strong
nuclear force, with a negative nuclear potential energy and a very
short range.
Beyond the short range, electrostatic repulsive force between the
+ve alpha particle and the +ve daughter nucleus becomes the
dominant force, with high electric potential energy of 20MeV.
The alpha particle has 9MeV which does not allow it to escape
from the potential wall classically.
However it has a probability = Transmission Coefficient of
successful tunneling.
It relies on the tunneling of electrons from the metal surface to
the tip of a sharp metallic probe. It causes a tunneling current,
which is highly sensitive to the distance between the tip and the
metal surface.
The resulting image can be of very high resolution due to the very
sharp tip and short-ranged tunneling.
The tip needs to be made more positive. Can reverse.
Tunneling current Te-2kd
U=V=1/2 m2x2
Solution:
=C0e-ax2/2 E0=1/2(h/2)()
=C1(x)exp(-ax2/2) E1=3/2(h/2)()
SO, En=(N+1/2) (h/2)()
Difference is (h/2)()
The lowest energy that a quantum harmonic oscillator can possess
Not 0, but 1/2(h/2)()
Hence, at T=0K, the atoms are not at rest but possess a definite
minimum amplitude and energy of vibration
E=(h/2)()=nhf is a justification for Max Plancks assumption in
blackbody radiation that the light emitting atoms on the wall of a
blackbody cavity can only absorbs or emit radiation in fixed
quanta of nhf.
By comparing the probability density functions with the quantum
oscillator with the classical harmonic oscillator,
1.1 Correspondence Principle states: all quantum systems will
behave more and more like classical systems as their
energies increase.
1.2 The amplitude of a particle executing classical harmonic
motion is fixed by the energy it possesses but the quantum
oscillators probability density functions shows it can enter
classically forbidden regions.
In quantum oscillator there are points where there is no
probability of appearing
The dynamics of s system, as described by quantum theory, must
agree with the classical description of that system in the limit of very
large quantum numbers.

Solid State
1

Unit cell

The smallest and simplest pattern unit which is repeated to form the

lattice.
t is the average time interval between collisions, called the mean free
time
is the average distance between collision

Vd=1/2 at

<v>=(8kT/m)1/

Drude Model

Quantumbased
free-electron
theory of metals

Fermi Energy

Density of state
function

Density
electron

Hall Effect

1
0

Hall Coefficient

of

Success:
1 in deriving an expression for the conductivity of metal
2 and describing the flow of electrons in accordance with Ohms
Law
Failures:
1 it gives very long mean free paths of electrons
2 and is unable to explain the temperature dependence of the
resistivity of metal,
3 and how electron gas does not contribute to the heat capacity of
metal
Is introduced to remedy the shortcomings of the classical theory by
taking into account of the wave property of electrons
Electrons can occupy only certain energy states governed by
Fermi-Dirac statistics. The probability that a particular state
having energy E is occupied by one of the electrons is given by
Fermi-Dirac distribution f(E)
It marks the boundary between filled states and empty states.
For electronic state with energy the same as E F, the probability of
being filled is half
Number of allowed states per unit volume that have energy between
E and E+E:
g(E)dE
Number of electron per unit volume that have energy between E and
E+E:
N(E)dE=f(E)g(E)dE (probability x number of states)
So number density of electron n is integral of N(E)dE
When a conductor or semiconductor carrying a current is placed in a
magnetic field such that the current is perpendicular to the magnetic
field, a voltage develops across the conductor or semiconductor
perpendicular to both current and magnetic field
Hall Voltage VH: The p.d. reached when charge separation ceases
RH=1/nq
Hence: RH has the same sign as VH, and the sign indicates the nature
of charge carrier

Photonics
1
2

Refraction
Refractive index

Brewsters
angle

4
5

Uses
Brewsters
angle
Birefringent

Step-index fibre

Graded-index
fibre

Multimode fiibre

of

The change in direction of waves when they change speed.

A fraction of speed of light
The higher the frequency of light, the larger the refractive index and
the slower it is
At this angle, only the component of E vector polarized perpendicular
to the incident plane (e.g. plane of the paper) will be reflected.
The refracted and reflected rays are at right angle.
tanB=n2/n1
Partial polarization of light from wet road
Polarized windscreen can reduce glares from such reflections
Materials having different refractive indices for different directions of
polarization are said to be birefringent.
If the waves are out of phase by 1/2 , a circularly polarized wave is
resulted with amplitude E0, the amplitude of the original wave
It can also be used to extract two beams with perpendicular
polarisations from unpolarised light.
Consists of a core of low loss glass surrounded by a cladding of lower
refractive index
The core has relatively larger diameter and refractive index changes
abruptly at the cladding
It has a higher refractive index in the core that gradually reduces as It
extends from the cylindrical axis outward.
There is no sharp discontinuity in the indices of refraction btw core
and cladding.
Advantages:
1 Light launches with more ease. It facilitates use of low cost optical
transmitters such as LEDs.
2 Cheaper, less complex and last longer.
3 Easier for fibre connection, less critical core to core alighment.
Disadvantages:
As number of modes increase, modal dispersion increases. The
modes arrive at the fibre ends at slightly different time and cause
light pulse to spread.
Modal dispersion affects the system band width, which is the
information capacity.

Single-mode
fibre

Application:
Short transmission distance such as premises communication.
Advantages:
1. Extremely little energy is lost to heat through the leakage of
higher modes into the cladding as they are no high orders.
Attenuation is not significant.
2. Low signal lost results in a higher information capacity and longer
length than multimode fibre.
3. Capable of transferring higher amounts of data due to low fibre
dispersion.
Disadvantage:
1. More expensive.
2. Must use laser dividers which is more expensive than LED.
Application:
Longer distance and high bandwidth. Telecommunication.

1
0

1
1
1
2

Fibre
Optical
Communication

Rayleigh
scattering
Absorption

Advantages:
1. System performance: increased bandwidth and capacity; lower
signal loss
2. Immunity to electrical noise
3. Electrical isolation: freedom from short circuit and sparks.
4. Lighter, smaller and easier to handle than copper cable.
5. Resistant to radiation, corrosion, temperature variation.
6. Overall: Low cost, lower installation cost, silica is the principle,
abundant and inexpensive material.
Disadvantages:
1. Fibre optic components are expensivem transmitters and receives
are still relatively expensive.
Scattering of light from molecular level of irregularities. 700nm1600nm
Light is absorbed by the residual materials such as metal or water
ions Water peak region