EMBRYOLOGY LECTURE 1

CELL DIVISIONS AND GAMETOGENESIS

Lecture plan
Definition of embryology
Cell divisions= mitosis/meiosis
Gametogenesis=
(oogenesis/spermatogenesis)
Embryology is the study of the origin and development of an
organism. In humans, development starts when an egg (oocyte)
from female and a sperm (spermatozoa) from male unite and
give rise to a new organism, the zygote in a process is called
fertilization.

Cell division= two types of cell divisions

Mitotic division= the cell divides and give rise to two daughter
cells with same number of chromosomes as the mother cell
Meiotic division= cell divides and give rise to 4 daughter cells
with half number of chromosomes and half DNA material

Mitotic division=fig.1
Before the cell enters mitosis, each chromosome doubles its
DNA and forms two chromatids. The chromosomes become
long and are widely spread in the cytoplasm
Stages of mitosis
PROPHASE: When mitosis begins, the chromosomes
begin to coil, contract and condense

 METAPHASE. The chromosomes line up in the equatorial

plane
ANAPHASE. Each chromosome undergoes a longitudinal
division of the cetromere and give rise to two daughter
chromosomes. The daughter chromosomes begins to
migrate towards the opposite poles of the cell
TELOPHASE. The daughter chromosomes are at the
opposite poles of the cell. The chromosomes uncoil and
lenghthen, and the cell cytoplasm divide and gives rise to
two daughter cells
DAUGHTER CELL: Each daughter cell has same number of
chromosomes as the mother cell.

fig.1

Meiotic divisions=fig.2
The germ cells replicate their DNA before the
commencement of meiotic division just like in mitotic
division
Purpose= 1, to allow exchange of genetic materials
between homologous chromosomes and 2, to reduce to
half (23) the number of chromosomes and DNA material

First meiotic division

Purpose = to allow exchange of genetic material
Before the 1st meiotic begin, the germ cell replicates its
DNA as in mitotic
There is pairing of homologous chromosomes in a process
called synapses which is exact and point to point, except
for X-Y combination.
The homologous pair contains 4 chromatids since each
chromosome is double structured containing 2 chromatids
There is exchange of chromatids segments between the
paired homologous chromosomes. The point of
interchange is known as the chiasma. They then split
longitudinally, having exchanged blocks of genetic
materials, and each chromosome migrate toward opposite
poles of the cell.
Each of the two daughter cells has 23 double-structured
chromosomes and contains one member of each
chromosome pair. The daughter cell has the same amount
of DNA as normal cell because each chromosome is still
double-structured.

Second meiotic division

Purpose= to reduce to half (23) the number of
chromosomes and DNA amount

 2nd meiotic division starts immediately after the end of 1 st

meiotic division and no duplication of DNA material
The 23 double -structure chromosomes divides at the
cetromere and each daughter cell receive 23 chromatids.
The DNA now is half that of somatic cell
Therefore, a germ cell is formed with haploid number of
chromosomes and half amount of DNA
Results
In females, one germ cell gives rise to 4 daughter cells,
and each has 22 + 1 X chromosomes. Only one out of the
4 matures into a gamete (tertiary oocyte). The rest 3
become polar
In male, one germ cell give rise to 4 daughter cells and all
develop into mature gametes. Two daughter cells contains
22+1 X- chromosomes , and the other two contains 22+1
Y-chromosomes

Things may go wrong during meiotic division=

Abnormalities
During the separation of homologous chromosomes in the
first meiotic division, each daughter cell is supposed to
receive one component of each pair. Sometimes
separation does not occur (nondisjuction) and both
members of a pair move to one cell. The result is that one
cell receives 24 chromosomes and the other 22
chromosomes. Then, when a gamete with 23
chromosomes fuses with a gamete with 24 chromosomes,
the result is a cell with 47 chromosomes =trisomy. Eg
Downs syndrome is trisomy 21. A gamete with 23
chromosomes fuses with a gamete with 22 chromosomes
chromosomes= monosomy

 The nondisjuction can also occur during the 2 nd meiotic

division

fig.2

GAMETOGENESIS= FORMATION OF MALE AND FEMALE

GAMETES FROM PRIMORDIAL GERM CELLS
During the process the gametes undergo chromosomal
and morphological changes in preparation for fertilization

 The normal body (somatic) cell has 46 chromosomes = 23

pairs. One chromosome of each pair from mother and the
other from the father.
Primordial germ cells have 46 chromosomes
Germ cells undergo changes in order to form gamete. First, the
number of chromosomes is reduced to half (23)= meiotic
division. Second, there is alteration in shape. The female germ
cell in the ovary becomes larger as its cytoplasm increases. The
male germ cell in the testis becomes smaller as it loose a lot of
cytoplasm and develops a head, neck, tail.

OOGENESIS= Formation of female gametes= the maturation

process from primitive germ cell to mature gamete (tertiary
oocyte)=fig.4
Before birth=Prenatal
Primordial germ cells are formed in the epiblast during the
second week and appear in the wall of yolk sac at the end
of the 3rd week. Fig.3
Primordial germ cells from the wall of yolk sac migrate to
the developing ovaries where they arrive in the fifth
week5th week and differentiate into oogonia. These cells
undergo a number of mitotic divisions and by end 3 rd
month, they are arranged in clusters and are surrounded
by flat epithelial cells.
Majority of oogonia continue with mitotic division while
some differentiate into much larger primary oocyst. The
primary oocyst replicates their DNA and enters the
prophase of the 1st meiotic division, and they are
surrounded individually by flat epithelial cells. A primary
oocyte, together with its surrounding flat epithelial cells is
known as a primordial follicle.

 Mitotic division continues and by 5th month of

development, the total number of germ cells reaches its
maximum estimated at 7 million. Then cells degeneration
(atresia) starts, for both oogonia and primary oocyst. By
7th month, majority of oogonia have degenerated and the
surviving primary oocytes have entered the prophase of
the 1st meiotic division. However, they dont proceed into
the metaphase but, rather they enter into a resting phase
during prophase called dictyotene stage.

Fig.3

AT BIRTH AND AFTER= postnatal

At birth, all primary oocytes have finished the prophase of the
1st meiotic division. Primary oocytes remain in prophase
and do not finish their first meiotic division before
puberty is reached. Their number is estimated at 0.7 to 2
millions. During childhood, majority of the primary oocytes

degenerate and at puberty, their number is approximately

40,000.
With the onset of puberty, (1) a number of primordial
follicles begin to mature with each ovarian cycle and (2),
the primary oocytes complete their first meiotic division.
The primary oocyte, still in dictyotene stage increases in
size while the surrounding flat epithelial cells, the follicular
cells change from flat to cuboidal. The follicle is now
called the secondary follicle. The primary oocyte is
initially in intimate contact with the surrounding follicular
cells but later, a layer of acellular material called zona
pellucida develops In between the follicular cells and the
primary oocyst.
As growth continues, the follicular cells proliferate, forming
a thick cellular layer around the oocyte. In between
follicular cells, fluid filled cavities are formed which later
coalesce to form one big cavity= follicular antrum. The
follicular cells that remain surrounding the oocyte are
known as cumulus oophorus. A mature follicle is called
tertiary or vesicular follicle. It is surrounded by two
layers of connective tissues; an outer fibrous layer called
theca externa, and an inner layer called theca interna,
which is rich in blood vessels.

With each ovarian cycle, a number of follicles begin to

develop but only one reaches maturity while the other
degenerate. As soon as the follicle is mature, the primary
oocyte resumes its first meiotic division. The results are 2
daughter cells= (i)secondary oocyte, which receive almost
all the cytoplasm, and (ii)the polar body, which hardly

receive any cytoplasm. The secondary oocyte is shed from

the ovary and it will only complete its 2nd meiotic division
if it is fertilised, otherwise it degenerates approximately 24
hours after ovulation.

fig.4; OOGENESIS
SPERMATOGENESIS= the maturation process from primordial
germ cell to mature male gametes-fig.5

fig.
5
The primordial germ cells in males migrate to the sex
cords of the testis and they dont differentiate until
puberty unlike in females where differentiation begins in
the third month. At birth, the germ cells can be recognised
and are surrounded by supportive cells, which later
becomes the sunstentacular or sertoli cells.

Shortly before puberty, the sex cord acquires a lumen and

becomes the seminiferous tubules. At the same time,
the primordial germ cells give rise to spermatogonia.

Spermatogonia differentiate into primary

spermatocytes. The primary spermatocytes replicate
their DNA and then enter the prophase of the 1 st meiotic
division. The prophase lasts about 16 days, and then the
following phases are completed and two secondary
spermatocytes are formed. Each of these cells enter the
2nd meiotic division and results in production of two
spermatids.
Spermiogenesis= conversion of spermatid to
spermatozoa
The spermatid undergoes series of changes which results
in production of the spermatozoa. The changes include;
formation of acrosome, condensation of nucleus,
formation of neck, body, tail, shedding of most of
cytoplasm. It takes approximately 61 days for a
spermatogonia to develop into a spermatozoa.
When fully formed, spermatozoa are pushed from
seminiferous tubules and are stored in the epididymis
where they are capacitated=become motile.
Abnormal spermatozoa are often seen; giant, dwarf,
deformed head, tail, sometimes joined. If abnormality
affects more than 25% of spermatozoa, fertility is usually
impaired.

Events occurring during the first and second maturation divisions. A. The
primitive female germ cell (primary oocyte) produces only one mature gamete,
the mature
oocyte. B. The primitive male germ cell (primary spermatocyte) produces four
spermatids,
all of which develop into spermatozoa.

Reference
Foundations of Embryology, 1st ed., Carlson (1998), New Yolk
An introduction to embryology, B.I balinsky, Sauder College
Text book for medical embryology: Normal and Abnormal
development, 1sr ed, F. Fasana (2008), KLB, NRB
Longmans medical embryology, 6th ed, T.W. sadler (1990),
Patterns-Bruce M, McGraw Hill
E resources- http://www.med.unc.edu/embryoimages