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ICM 2118: NUTRITION AND DIETETICS

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Basic nutrition
a) Basic principles of nutrition and dietetics;
Definitions:
i.
Nutrition: The science of food and its relationship to health and disease, and the
processes by which the body ingests, absorbs, transports, uses and excretes food
substances.
Nutrition also involves identifying how certain diseases, conditions or problems may be
caused by dietary factors, such as poor diet (malnutrition), food allergies, metabolic
diseases, etc. It focuses on how diseases, conditions and problems can be prevented or
lessened with a healthy diet. In science and human medicine, nutrition is the science or
practice of consuming and utilizing foods.
ii.
Nutrients; Substance in food that are essential for energy, growth, normal functioning of
the body and maintenance of life. Provide energy and building blocks & is vital for
growth and maintenance. Essential Nutrient Omission leads to growth decline.

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Why study nutrition?


Nutrition and Health; Health is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as
the State of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing and not merely the absence
of disease or infirmity.
To maintain good health and nutritional status one must eat a balanced food, which
contains all the nutrients in the correct proportion. The essential requisites of health
would include the following:
1. Achievement of optimal growth and development, reflecting the full expression of
ones genetic potential.
2. Maintenance of the structural integrity and functional efficiency of body tissues
necessary for an active and productive use.
3. Mental well-being
4. Ability to withstand the inevitable process of aging with minimal disability and
functional impairment.
5. Ability to combat diseases such as resisting infections (immuno competence)
preventing the onset of degenerative diseases
resisting the effect of environmental toxins/ pollutants
Poor diet and sedentary lifestyle are risk factors for chronic diseases: Disease of the
heart (29% of all deaths) Cancer (22%) Cerebrovascular disease (~7%) Diabetes (3%).
In hospitals, nutrition may refer to the food requirements of patients, including nutritional
solutions delivered via an IV (intravenous) or IG (intragastric) tube.
Being well informed in nutrition is also important for your wellbeing, that of your family
and the community as a whole.
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Nutritional science; investigates the metabolic and physiological responses of the body
to diet. The body of scientific knowledge developed through controlled research that
relates to the processes involved in nutrition (national, international, community and
clinical).
Nutritional science studies how the body breaks food down (catabolism) and repairs and
creates cells and tissue (anabolism) - catabolism and anabolism = metabolism. Nutritional
science also examines how the body responds to food.

v.

Dietetics; The branch of knowledge concerned with the diet and its effects on health, esp.
with the practical application of a scientific understanding of nutrition. The science of
applying nutritional principles to the planning and preparation of foods and the regulation
of the diet in relation to both health and disease; Management of diet and the use of food
science concerned with the nutritional planning and preparation of food. Dietitians apply
the art and science of human nutrition to help people understand the relationship between
food and health and make dietary choices to attain and maintain health, and to prevent
and treat illness and disease. Roles and Responsibilities of a dietitian include

Collecting, organising and assessing data relating to the health and nutritional status of
nindividuals, groups and populations.

Interpreting scientific information and communicating information, advice, education and


professional opinion to individuals, groups and communities.

Managing client centred nutrition care for individuals by planning appropriate diets and
menus and educating people on their individual nutritional needs and ways of accessing
and preparing their food.

Planning, implementing and evaluating nutrition programs with groups, communities or


populations as part of a team. This may be in a community health, public health or food
industry setting.

Managing food service systems to provide safe and nutritious food by designing
nutritionally appropriate menus and designing and implementing nutrition policies.

Undertaking food and nutrition research and evaluating practice.

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Nutritional requirements: These are the quantities of energy and bioavailable nutrients in
the foods that healthy individuals must eat to meet all of their physiological needs.
"bioavailable" is meant that they are digested, absorbed, and utilized by the organism.
The nutritional requirements are individual physiological values that are expressed as
averages for similar population groups-e.g. preschool children, adolescent males,
pregnant women, and adult males with a determined physical activity.
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Nutritional recommendations: These are the quantities of energy and nutrients that the
foods consumed must contain to meet the requirements of almost all the individuals in a
healthy population. They are based on requirement figures, corrected for bioavailability,
to which the necessary quantity to cover the variability of the individual is added and, for
some nutrients, an additional quantity is included as a margin of security.
Minimum and maximum limits exist for energy and nutrients outside of which the
functioning of the organism and health are unfavorably affected.

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Nutritional goals: These are the nutritional recommendations adjusted to a particular


population for the purpose of promoting health, controlling deficiencies or excesses, and
minimizing the risk of diseases related to nutrition. Furthermore, they take into
consideration the sources of energy and nutrients, the proportions in which they are
consumed, and the factors that affect their availability and consumption.
Nutritional guidelines: These are indications of practical ways to reach the nutritional
goals of a given population. They are based on the habitual diet of the population and
suggest necessary modifications. They take into consideration ecological, economic,
social, and cultural characteristics of the population and its biological and physical
environment. Nutritional guidelines should be established for the total population of a
country or region and also for special groups within that population with specific needs
(e.g. young children) and for those at high risk for health problems related to nutrition
(e.g. obesity).
Nutrients types; sources; roles in the body;
Component Percentage of body weight
Water

61.6

Protein

17

Fats

13.8

Minerals

6.1

Carbohydrate 1.5
Constituent

Use

Water

To provide body fluid and to help regulate body temperature

Carbohydrates

As fuel for energy for body heat and work

Fats

As fuel for energy and essential fatty acids

Proteins

For growth and repair

Minerals

For developing body tissues and for metabolic processes and

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protection
Vitamins

For metabolic processes and protection

Indigestible and unabsorbable To form a vehicle for other nutrients, add bulk to the diet,
particles, including fibre
provide a habitat for bacterial flora and assist proper elimination
of refuse
The principle of nutrient interaction states that;
1. Individual nutrients have many specific metabolic functions, including primary and
supporting roles and
2. No nutrient ever works alone.
WATER
Water is more essential to life than food itself. Indigestion and constipation are as a result
of lack of or insufficient water intake. Water makes up of body weight. Water forms
every part of the body cell. It forms basic substances of blood, lymph, and body
secretions.
Functions of water
Chemical reactant; Medium in which chemical reactions take place. Is a solvent e.g. in
hydrolysis.
Solvent; Body fluids are capable of transporting nutrients and hormones to the cells and
of carrying waste products from the cells to areas of excretion.
Cell component; Intracellular water gives form and shape to the cell hence prevents cell
membranes from collapsing.
Temperature regulator; excess heat is gotten rid of through evaporation of water from
the skin. This temperature regulation mechanism enhances the normal functioning of the
body.
Lubricant; Some body water serves as a lubricant e.g. spinal fluid, ocular fluid, synovial
fluid and the mucous secretions of the respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract and the
genitourinary tract.
Water intake and output;
Body fluids are held in compartments in the body. 2/3within the cells and 1/3
outside (in blood vessels and spaces between cells.)
Water is medium for chemical reactions; a solvent of nutrients, secretion & waste
products; a component of cell structure; a regulator of body temperature and a
lubricant
Water is lost from skin and lungs, in urine and feces. It is taken in fluids and solid
foods; and is a product of metabolism
Under normal conditions, total water requirement for an adult is ~ 2-2.5litres per
day.5- 6 cups must be pure water.
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Homeostasis; a stable, balanced state of body fluids that maintains normal body
functions is required for proper body functioning. Water and electrolytes play a
major role in in maintaining homeostasis.
Water balance between fluid in the cell and fluid surrounding the cell is regulated
mainly by potassium within the cell and sodium outside the cell.
Water balance between blood vessels and spaces around the cells is the result of
osmotic pressure due to electrolytes and plasma proteins in the blood and
electrolytes in the spaces around the cells.
Edema occurs when sodium accumulates in the spaces between the cells or when
there is severe protein deficiency. The pressure exerted by proteins in the
bloodstream is lower than normal.
Dehydration is a threat to life.
Blood maintains a slightly alkaline pH (7.3 7.45). The balance is maintained by
buffers in the blood, exhalation of CO2, excretion of excess acid / alkaline
substances via urine and production of ammonia in the kidneys.
Minerals are components of body tissue and vital compounds, transmitters of
nerve impulses, stimulators of muscle contractions, regulators of water balance
and acid base balance.

Is the most important dietary constituent. A human being can live without food for 20 to 40 days,
but without water humans die in four to seven days. Over 60 percent of human body weight is
made up of water, of which approximately 61 percent is intracellular and the rest extracellular.
Water intake, except under exceptional circumstances (e.g. intravenous feeding), comes from the
food and fluids consumed. The amount consumed varies widely in individuals and may be
influenced by climate, culture and other factors. Often as much as 1 litre is consumed in solid
food, and 1 to 3 litres as fluids drunk. Water is also formed in the body as a result of oxidation of
macronutrients (< 10 percent of total water).
Water is excreted mainly by the kidneys as urine, from the skin (through perspiration) and the
lungs. Much smaller quantities are lost from the gut in the faeces (except in the presence of
diarrhea, when losses may be high).The kidneys regulate the output of urine and maintain a
balance; if smaller amounts of fluid are consumed, the kidneys excrete less water, and the urine
is more concentrated.
Carbohydrates; Basic fuels: starches and sugars. Reasons why CHO are more common in our
diets;
Easily available
Relatively cheap
Stored easily (dried or processed.)
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I.

Classification; Composed of Carbon, Hydrogen and oxygen. Classified according to the


no. of sugars/ saccharides; Monosaccharide (simple sugars) - glucose,(dextrose) fructose
and galactose.
Glucose; is the common refined body fuel that is oxidised in the cells to give energy.
Blood sugar level is ~ 70 110mg / dl of blood. Hyperglycemia refers to elevated blood
sugar level while Hypoglycemia refers to blood sugar levels below the normal.
Fructose; Found in fruits and honey.is converted to glucose to be burned for energy use.
Galactose; is produced in human digestion of lactose (milk Sugar) and is changed to
glucose.
Hexoses
Glucose

source
significance
Fruit juices, hydrolysis of starch, Body sugar; blood
cane sugar, maltose, and lactose
and tissue fluids; cell
fuel.
Fructose
Fruit, Juices, honey, hydrolysis of Changed to glucose in
sucrose from cane sugar.
the liver and intestine to
serve as basic body fuel.
galactose
Hydrolysis of lactose( milk Sugar) Changed to glucose in
the liver; cell fuel;
synthesized
in
the
mammary glands to
make lactose of milk;
constituent
of
glycolipids
and
glycoproteins
Disaccharides; Simple (double) sugars. Three main disaccharides of physiologic
importance to the human body are; Sucrose (glucose +fructose), Lactose (glucose
+ galactose) and maltose (glucose +glucose).
Sucrose; table sugar. Contributes 30 40 % of the total kcal in US Found in all
forms of common sugar; molasses in fruits and veges like pineapples and carrots.
Lactose; Milk sugar. Least sweet of the disaccharides.
Maltose; occurs in commercial malt products of starch breakdown and in
germinating cereal grains. Is a highly significant metabolic CHO as an
intermediate pdt of digestion.
Disaccharide
Maltose

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source
Starch digestion od
amylase, commercial
hydrolysis, malt and
germinating cereals.

Significance
Hydrolyzed to glucose;
basic body fuel and
metabolite;
fermentable
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Sucrose

Cane and beet sugar,


sorghum cane, carrots,
pineapples
Milk

Hydrolyzed to glucose
and fructose; body
fuel.
Lactose
Hydrolyzed to glucose
and galactose; body
fuel, constituent for
milk production during
lactation.
Polysaccharides; made up of many simple sugars. Most important in human nutrition
include; Starch- yields glucose on digestion. Sources include- cereal grains, legumes,
potatoes and some vegetables. Comprises 50 55/ 60 % of most diets.
Glycogen: Formed during metabolism and stored in the liver and muscle tissues. Stores
help sustain normal glucose/ sugar levels in the blood during fasting, sleep hours, and
provide immediate fuel for muscle action for athletes. Dietary CHO helps maintain the
needed glycogen stores and prevent symptoms of low CHO intake namely- fatigue,
dehydration and energy loss, ketoacidosis and excessive protein breakdown.
Dextrins; Formed as intermediate products in the breakdown of starch. Occurs in the
process of digestion.
Starch + water = Soluble starch + maltose
Soluble starch + water = Dextrins +maltose
Dextrins +water = Maltose
Maltose + water = Gluscose +glucose.
Oligosaccharides; Small portions of partially digested starch that occur naturally and also
commercially made. Naturally is found in some beans peas and soy beans. Produce a
large amount of gas leading to discomfort.
Dietary fiber; Classified into;
Cellulose- originate from plants. Form the bulk of the indigestible material. Helps move
the food mass along and stimulates peristalsis. Sources; stems and leaves of vegetables,
seed and grain coverings skins and hulls.
Non Cellulose polysaccharides; e.g. hemicellulose, gums, mucilage &algal substances.
Function they absorb water and slow gastric empting time. Except hemicellulose the rest
are gum like and they aid in binding cholesterol and controlling its absorption. Prevent
colon pressure by providing the bulk for normal intestinal muscle action.
Lignin: Is non CHO type of diet fiber. Combines with bile acids in the intestine to form
insoluble compounds thus preventing their absorption.
Physiological effects of dietary fiber;
Water absorption; This enhances its laxative effect due to the quantity of water
absorbed.it influences the transit time of the food mass through the digestive tract and the
consequent absorption of various nutrients.
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Binding effect; Non cellulose fibers influence blood lipids thru their binding effect, a
capacity to bind cholesterol and bile salts and prevent there absorption. Excessive dietary
fiber can also bind minerals like iron, zinc and calcium hence preventing the needed
absorption.
Colon bacteria effect; the effect of the colon bacteria produces volatile fatty acids and
gas.
Dietary fiber recommendation: 11g -25g / day is wise.
Functions of Carbohydrates:
Energy; Provision of fuel for energy production. CHO should be eaten regularly and at
moderate frequent intervals to supply the required energy. An adult stores ~ 300 350 g
in the liver and muscles in form of glycogen while 10 g circulate in the blood.1gm of
CHO gives 4 kcal of energy. Under normal conditions the CNS uses only glucose for its
form of energy while skeletal muscles can use either glucose or fatty acids (fats)
Glycogen reserves; Reserves protects the cells from depressed metabolic function and
injury.Limitedd amounts are stored in form of glycogen while the rest is in form of body
fat.
Protein Sparing action; help regulate protein metabolism. Hence major part of protein is
used for the primary function. This is extremely important indiseases of the kidney and
the liver after surgery.
Antiketogenic effect / help the body use fats efficiently; CHO relates to fat metabolism.
Amount of CHO present in the body determine the amount of fat to be broken down
hence affecting the formation of disposal rates of ketones ( intermediate products of fat
metabolism which are produced at a low level during fat metabolism. When CHO is low
in diet, too much fat is oxidized hence producing a lot of ketones. Accumulation of
ketones leads to ketoacidosis. Sufficient CHO prevent the damaging excess of ketones.
Heart action; Glycogen reserve in the heart muscles is important for emergencies. (Source
of contractile energy.)
CNS function; CNS regulatory Centre has no stores of CHO, hence depends on the
minute to minute supply from blood. Sustained hypoglycemic shock can lead to
irreversible brain damage.
Is a component of body substances; CHO are components of certain body substances
needed for regulation of body processes. Heparin is a substance that controls blood
clotting and it contains carbohydrates. Nervous tissue, connective tissue, various
hormones and enzymes contain carbohydrates. Ribose is a CHO that forms part of DNA
and RNA which are substances that carry the hereditary factors in the cell.
Encourage growth of useful bacteria; CHO encourage the growth of useful bacteria in the
intestines (Intestinal bacteria involved in the production of certain vitamins and in the
absorption of calcium and phosphorus)

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III.

IV.

V.

VI.

Promote Normal Functioning of the Lower Intestinal Tract; Cellulose and other
indigestible CHO (fiber) absorbs and holds water resulting in softer, bulkier stool and
faster movement through the lower intestinal tract.
Digestion of Carbohydrates; Carbohydrates are digested in 2 stages ;
Mechanical; (muscle functions) renders the food mass into smaller particles.
Chemical process; Specific enzymes breakdown the food into smaller usable
metabolic products.
Mouth; mastication breaks food into fine particles and mixes it with the salivary
secretions. Salivary amylase (ptyalin) is secreted by the parotid gland. It acts on starch to
begin its breakdown into Dextrins and maltose.
Stomach: mechanical digestion continues in the stomach by the process of peristalsis.
Food is mixed with gastric secretions to allow chemical digestion to take place. HCL in
the stomach stops the action of salivary amylase. Muscle action continues to take the
food to lower part of the stomach; where the food is a thick creamy chyme. It is emptied
into the duodenum through the pyloric valve.
Small Intestine; Peristalsis continues to aid in digestion; by mixing and moving chyme
along the lumen in the length of the tube. Chemical digestion of CHO is completed in
small intestines by enzymes from- pancreas and intestines.
Pancreatic secretions- they enter the duodenum through the bile duct. Contain pancreatic
amylase which breaks down starch to maltose.
Intestinal Secretions Contains 3 enzymes which act on their respective disaccharides to
change into mono saccharides i.e. enzymes sucrase, lactase and maltase. The
monosaccharides are immediately absorbed into the portal blood circulation.
Absorption of Carbohydrates: Absorption is the process by which the body carries the
basic end product of CHO digestion to the cells throughout the body. Glucose absorption
mechanism is by active transport (pumping system requiring sodium as a carrier substance).
Absorbing structures; Absorbing surfaces of the small intestines are enhanced by; mucosal
folds, villi and microvilli. The structures greatly increase absorption surface that allows 90%
of the digested food materials to be absorbed in the small intestines. Only water absorption
remains for the large intestines.
Route absorption; simple sugars enter portal circulation and are transported to the liver.
Fructose and galactose are converted to glucose which is used immediately for fuel or
converted to glycogen for storage.
Metabolism; refers to the sum of the various chemical processes in a living organism by
which energy is made available for the functioning of the entire organism.
Cell metabolism of CHO products; the liver is the major site of the intricate machinery that
handles glucose. Energy metabolism occurs in all cells. Glucose is burned to produce energy
which is available to the cell for its work.
Excretion; after digestion and absorption, the food remains are excreted via the large
intestines. The large intestines consist of the cecum; which receives undigested materials

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from the small intestines; the colon which removes most of the water content from the
undigested material; and the rectum which temporarily stores the solid wastes until when it is
excreted.
Carbohydrates and Health; Knowledge of CHO sources, their characteristics and their
nutritional value helps one in prevention of disease (e.g. dental carries ) and in treatment of
disease involving the utilization of carbohydrates (as in diabetes mellitus) it can also help us
correct the wide spread misunderstanding about CHO. Overconsumption of sugars- can easily
lead to obesity.
Dental Disease- Sugar consumption promotes tooth decay and gum disease. Sugar rich foods are
used by bacteria in the mouth to form acids. The acids dissolve tooth enamel and irritate gums.
Frequent use of sugar throughout the day is more harmful than using it once / 2 a day. Dental
hygiene and fluoridation of water are important in dental health.
Lack of fiber lack of fiber in the diet has been linked to diseases of the colon and other
chronic illinesses. High fiber diet reduces the symptoms of constipation and diverticulosis.
Fad diets; Low CHO diets will promote fat breakdown. Incomplete breakdown of fats will lead
to ketosis / ketoacidosis.
Abnormal utilization of carbohydrates; Disease conditions like diabetes mellitus can make the
body unable to utilize CHO normally. When cells cant burn glucose to give energy at the normal
rate, the amount of sugar circulating in the blood increases. Diabetes can be due to lack of insulin
or due to malfunctioning of insulin. Lactose intolerance is due to lack of enzyme lactase.
Galactosemia is when the liver is unable to convert the sugar galactose to glucose. It leads to
disturbances, physical and mental retardation, and cataracts.
Alcohol Abuse; alcohol is a product of alcohol fermentation.it yields 7kcal /g. chronic alcoholics
are always malnourished.
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Proteins; Protein originates from Greek word meaning of first importance. The quality and
quantity of proteins in ones diet are of extreme importance. Physical and chemical nature of
proteins; physically, proteins act to shape our lives, they are structural units that shape our
bodies. As enzymes they change our food into nutrients.as antibodies they shied our bodies from
diseases, as peptide hormones they send messages that coordinate continuous body activity.
Chemical nature; chemical units of proteins are amino acids. Nature of amino acids;
Amino acids: Compounds containing nitrogen that are the building blocks of the protein
molecule.
Antibody: a protein substance produced within the body that destroys / weakens harmful
bacteria.
Biologic value of proteins; the ability of a protein to support the formation of body tissue.
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Complementary proteins; the combination of protein foods that have opposite strengths and
weaknesses in their amino acids compositions.
Complete protein; A protein containing all the essential amino acids
Incomplete protein; A protein lacking one or more of the essential amino acids or containing
some amino acids in only very small amounts.
Edema; Swelling, a condition in which body tissues contain an excessive amount of body fluid.
Essential amino acids; amino acids that cannot be synthesized by the body and must be
provided by food in the diet.
Non-essential amino acids; Amino acids that can be synthesized by the body to meet its needs.
Kwashiorkor; A severe protein deficiency disease that occurs in infancy and early childhood.
Marasmus; A condition characterized by loss of flesh and strength due to underfeeding; a lack
of sufficient calories for a prolonged period of time.
Immobility: The condition of being inactive owing to disability, such as that experienced by the
person confined to bed or wheel chair.
Textured vegetable protein; (TVP) Protein that is drawn from plant protein, spun into fibers
and manufactured into products that imitate animal protein foods.
Classification; Proteins are made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Some may
contain other elements like phosphorus and sulphur or iron and iodine e.g. Hemoglobin and
thyroxin.
Functions; growth and tissue building and maintenance- primary function is to supply building
materials for growth and maintenance of body tissues. The vital element in our body structure is
nitrogen (16% of protein is nitrogen)..
Formation of regulating compounds; enzymes (insulin, thyroxine, and adrenaline) and
hormones and most other regulatory materials in the body are protein substances. Hemoglobin is
also vital in the transport of oxygen from the blood to the cells.
Antibody formation; antibodies are proteins that assist the body in fighting infections and other
toxic conditions. Insufficient protein intake leads to low production of antibodies.
Fluid balance; Proteins assist in regulating the fluid balance of the cells. Plasma protein
molecules are so large that they cannot pass through the capillarity membranes and thus remain
in the blood vessels. The presence of the plasma proteins in the blood vessels creates the pressure
needed to draw fluid back out of the cell so that it does not accumulate in the tissues. When
protein intake is low, the number of plasma proteins is low and the pressure exerted is also
reduced leading to accumulation of fluid in the tissues (edema). Hormonal changes interfere with
excretion of fluids too. Edema is a symptom of severe protein deficiency.
Maintenance of Blood neutrality; Blood pH should be maintained at a near neutral. A change in
pH alters the functioning of enzymes. The presence of proteins in the blood prevents
accumulation of too much acids or base. Proteins can serve as acids or bases according to body
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Provision of energy; proteins can provide kilocalories when those provided from carbohydrates
and fats are insufficient. Use of proteins for energy is expensive and uneconomical. (Proteins are
expensive/ costly)
Functions of Protein
1. Build and repair body tissues
Proteins form integral parts of most body structure such as skin, tendon, membranes, muscles,
organs and bones. They support the growth and repair of body tissues.
2. Enzymes (e.g.) Lipase helps to breakdown fat and sucrase breaks down sugar.
3. Hormones Regulate body process.
4. Antibodies Inactivate foreign invaders thus protecting the body against disease.
5. Fluid &electrolyte balance Proteins help to maintain the volume and composition of body
fluids.
6. Acid-base balance-Proteins help maintain the acid-base balance of the body fluids by acting as
buffers.
7. Energy Proteins provide fuel for the body s energy needs [4 KCal/gm].
8. Storage Proteins help to store iron and copper.
9. Homeostasis Proteins maintain normal osmotic balance among body fluids.
10. Transport proteins (e.g.)Haemoglobin, lipoprotein
These types of proteins carry nutrients to the tissues, e.g. lipoprotein carry lipids, haemoglobin
transports oxygen.
11. Contribute to sensory &physical properties of food
Proteins impart colour, flavor, odour and texture to foods.

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I.
Place of action
Stomach
Small intestine

Digestion;
Protein
Protein

Enzyme
Pepsin(in acid environment)

End product
Large peptides (polypeptides)

Protein, Polypeptides

Trypsin (secreted by pancreas)

Polypeptides,
amino acids

Polypeptides, dipeptides

Peptidases (secreted by mucosal Small peptides, amino acids.


cells of small intestine)
Portal blood
Liver
Body tissues.

dipeptides,

Absorption, Metabolism and excretion Proteins must be broken down to amino acids / peptides before being absorbed into the blood
system. The products of protein digestion are released into the blood and transported via the portal vein to the liver and then to all
body cells. Some stay in the liver to form liver tissue or to produce different plasma proteins. When amino acids are broken down the
nitrogen containing part is split off from the carbon chain. Most of the nitrogen is converted to urea in liver and excreted via the
kidneys. The carbon containing portion is utilized as energy.
Sources; Animal sources; Meat, poultry & fish products; milk and milk products; eggs.
Plant sources; Dry legumes and nuts, vegetables and fruits, bread and cereals; Textured Vegetable proteins TVP (e.g. soya meat/
sossi)
Recommended protein consumption; are determined by age and body size. The larger the person the greater the amount of living
tissue there is to be maintained and repaired. Recommendations represent minimum needs and include a margin of safety to allow for
individual differences in need and for the less than complete utilization of protein in a mixed diet. Daily recommended protein
allowance is 0.8g per kg of body weight. At least one of the proteins taken in a day should be from animal source.
Proteins and Health; low protein intake or loss of proteins during sickness can lead to; wasting of muscle, weight loss, anemia,
delayed healing of wounds and fractures. Lower serum protein levels and hormonal changes may result in edema and reduced
production of antibodies makes one susceptible to infection. Protein losses occur after surgery and during serious illness / injury.
Taking extra protein during convalescence promotes recovery.
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1. Fat / Lipids
Definitions;
Lipid: fatlike substance that is insoluble in water
Adipose- Containing fat like adipose tissue.
Hydrogenation: addition of hydrogen to a liquid fat, changing it into solid or semi-solid state. (The harder the product the higher
the degree of saturation with hydrogen.
Prostaglandins: a group of hormone like compounds derived from essential fatty acids and present in many tissues.
Satiety value: A foods ability to produce a feeling of fullness.
Saturated: A saturated fatty acid is one in which the fatty acids are filled with hydrogen atoms, containing all the hydrogen they
can hold.
Steatorrhea: Excessive fat in the stool.
I.
Characteristics of Fats (classification)
Made up of Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Are insoluble in water and contain one or more fatty acids in their chemical structure.
Fatty acids- organic acids that combine with glycerol to form fat. Essential fatty acids are those that cannot be produced by the
body and must be provided by diet.
Important lipids;
Triglycerides - A fat formed by the combination of three fatty acids and glycerol. (Most animal and vegetable fats are
triglycerides)
Phospholipid: -A lipid that contains phosphorus, fatty acids and a nitrogenous base: important in fat metabolism and in nerve and
brain tissue.Are important in the structure of cells , formation of some enzyme systems and metabolism of fats. Used in
commercial processing of food as a smoothing agent. E.g. Lecithin: A phospholipid containing choline and used commercially as
an emulsifier. (Synthesized in the body)
Lipoproteins: A combination of a protein with a fat. Form in which fats are transported in the bloodstream. Composed of
triglycerides, proteins, phospholipids, and cholesterol.
Cholesterol: A wax like / fatlike compound occurring in bile, blood, brain and nerve tissue, liver and other parts of the body.
Is a major part of the brain and nerve tissues. Is necessary for normal body functioning as a structural material in the cells, and in
the production of bile salts, vitamin D and a number of hormones. (cortisone and sex hormones). Heredity, diet, emotional stress,
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exercise and other conditions have an effect upon blood cholesterol levels. Persons with high cholesterol levels are more likely to
develop atherosclerosis.

II.

III.

Functions:
Source of energy: most concentrated source of energy for the body.1g of fat yields 9kcal. Fat is not readily available like CHO. Is
a reserve form of energy.
Reserve fuel supply: Is an essential part of every cell wall and of membranes within the cell. Fats serve as reserve fuel in
circumstances where food[
intake is low e.g. during illness.
Maintenance of temperature; Cushioning and protection; Fat deposits below the skin layer help insulate the body from excessive
cold and heat. Fat protects vital organs like the heart and kidneys by holding them in position and protecting them from physical
injury. Too much fat hinders heat loss during hot weather and affects physical movements. It can cause different problems.
Carrier of Fat-soluble Vitamins; fats serve as carriers of vitamin A D E K. Interference with absorption and utilization of fat
reduce the amount of fat soluble vitamins available.
Meal satisfaction: Fat adds flavor and taste to food. Takes long to be digested hence feeling of fullness and delayed onset of
hunger. Fat has high satiety value.
One needs 15-25g of polyunsaturated fats daily. Total amount of fat should not exceed 30% of the total calories.
Digestion, absorption, metabolism and excretion
Only a third of fat in the intestines is completely broken down to fatty acids and glycerol. The remainder is absorbed in a partially
digested form.
\

Place of action
NMW

Fat

Enzyme

End product
Page 15

Mouth,

None

Stomach

Emulsified fat

Gastric lipase

Fatty
acids,
glycerol,
glycerides, monoglycerides

Small intestine

Diglycerides,
Triglycerides

Pancreatic lipase

Monoglycerides, fatty acids,


glycerol. (resynthesized in
intestinal mucosa to form
triglycerides)-Some move to
blood stream via lymph &
small portion enters blood
capillaries.

IV.

Sources-Animal sources Visible fats; butter, cream, oil, margarine, bacon, and visible fats in meat.
Invisible fats: hidden in milk, eggs poultry, pastries, nuts. Milk and milk products contribute up to 3.3- 3.5 % fats. Meat, fish and
poultry products contribute between 1% to 28% fat.
Plant sources- Vegetables and fruits have 1% fat except for avocado (16%) and ripe olives (20%), fresh coconut (35%).Most nuts
and seeds have 60% - 70%
Saturated fats: Occur mostly in animal fats e.g. whole milk and whole milk products, meat fat and fatty meats. Plant fats that are
highly saturated are; coconut oil, palm oil and cocoa butter
Hydrogenated vegetable oils; vegetable oils produced by the process of hydrogenation. (Hydrogen is added to polyunsaturated
vegetable oils, hardening & partially saturating them.
Polyunsaturated fats; occur in safflower, sunflower, corn, cottonseed, soybean and sesame oils.
Monounsaturated Fats: occur in olives & peanuts
Cholesterol: occur in animal fats .e.g. meat, fish, poultry, milk and its products.
FAT INTAKE AND HEALTH

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Page 16

High fat intake in the diet is associated with health problems like; coronary heart and blood vessels disease, obesity, cancer of
the breast and colon. Obesity increases the risk of heart disease, diabetes etc.
Obesity; Excessive use of fat contributes to obesity. Fats must be chosen wisely in order to use those that have the greatest
nutritional contribution.
Atherosclerosis- Thickening of the inside wall of arteries by soft, cellular and fatty deposits, called atheroma or atheromatous
plaques which makes the arteries narrow and hinders blood flow. When the flow is hindered it may lead to heart attack or
stroke. Atherosclerosis is influenced by many factors including- hereditary, obesity, diet, high blood pressure, high plasma
cholesterol levels, cigarette smoking, lack of exercise, hormonal factors, stress and metabolic diseases like diabetes.
Essential fatty acid Deficiency; Symptoms include- dry and scaly skin, and a slow than normal growth rate. In adults
symptoms include- dermatitis and disturbances in fat metabolism.
Gastrointestinal and other diseases; fats are restricted in diseases that interfere with their digestion/ absorption. E.g.
gallbladder disease & cystic fibrosis.
Seizure Disorders; ketogenic diet (high in fat and restricted in CHO and protein) is prescribed for children with seizure
disorders who dont respond to drug therapy. Diet produces mild ketosis and reduces seizures, restlessness and irritability.

LIPID
Lipids more commonly known as fats and oil are integral part of our food. They are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents.
They occur in both plant and animals.
Lipids are a concentrated source of energy.
CLASSIFICATION
Lipids are classified into simple, compound and derived lipids.
Simple lipids
Fats and Oils are included in this type. At room temperature, oils are liquids and fats are solids. Fats and oils contain esters of fatty
acid and glycerol, a form in which lipids are present in food.
Compound lipids
They are esters of fatty acids containing phosphorous carbohydrate or protein. Phospholipids contain a phosphoric acid in addition to
the alcohol and fatty acids.
Glycolipids contain a fatty acid, carbohydrate and nitrogenous base. Phospholipids and glycolipids form part of the cell membrane and
the nervous system.
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Lipoproteins are macromolecular complex of lipids with proteins.


Derived lipids
These are substances liberated during hydrolysis of simple and compound lipids which still retain the properties of lipids. The
important members of this group are sterols, fatty acids and alcohol.
Sterols
Sterols are solid alcohols and form esters with fatty acids. In nature they occur in the free state in the form of esters. Based on their
origin sterols are classified as cholesterol (animal origin) and phytosterol (in plants).
Cholesterol is a complex type of lipid that is regularly synthesised by and stored in the liver. It is present in all animal products.
Fatty acids
Fatty acids are the main building blocks of fat. They have a methyl group (CH3) at one end and a carboxyl group(COOH) at the other
end with a chain of carbon and hydrogen atom in the middle. They have a basic formula CH3(CH2)n COOH. Where n denotes the
number of carbon atoms which may vary from 2 to 2l.Fatty acids can be classified into Saturated Fatty Acids(SFA) & Unsaturated
Fatty Acids (UFA)
Saturated Fatty Acids
Saturated fatty acids are those that are unable to absorb more hydrogen. They are usually stiff and hard fats. Eg. Ghee, Butter.
Unsaturated fatty acids
Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bond in their molecule and are thus not saturated with hydrogen. They are liquid at
room temperature. Eg. Sunflower oil. Unsaturated fatty acids may be monounsaturated or polyunsaturated depending on the number of
double bonds.
Monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA)
MUFA have only one double bond in their molecule. Eg. oleic acid found in olive oil, peanut oil.
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA)
PUFA have 2 or more double bonds in their molecule. Eg. linoleic acid, linolenic acid. They are present in corn, safflower, soyabean,
sunflower oils and fish oils. Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats are usually soft or liquid at room temperature.
Triglycerides
Fatty acids combine with glycerol to form a glyceride, When only one fatty acid combines with glycerol, it forms a mono glyceride,
diglycerides have 2 fatty acids and triglycerides

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Page 18

have three fatty acids attached to glycerol. Most of the fatty acids present in the body and absorbed from foods occur in the form of
triglycerides. During digestion triglycerides are hydrolysed to form free fatty acid, mono glycerides and glycerol which are absorbed
by the intestinal wall and the majority of these are rebuilt as triglycerides.
Long and short chain fatty acid
The number of carbon atom in fatty acids decides the chain length. Thus short chain fatty acids contain 4 to 6 carbon atoms, medium
chain 8 to 12 carbon atoms and long chain fatty acid have 14 to 18 carbon atom.
Essential and Non Essential fatty acid
Essential fatty acid (EFA) are those which cannot be synthesized by the body and need to be supplied through diet. Linolenic acid,
linoleic acid and arachidonic acid are
essential fatty acids.
Non -essential fatty acids
Non-essential fatty acids are those which can be synthesized by the body and which need not be supplied through the diet. Palmitic
acid, oleic acid and butyric acid are examples of non essential fatty acids.
COMPOSITION
Fat is a complex molecule constituting a mixture of fatty acids and an alcohol, generally glycerol.
It contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen but differs from carbohydrates in that it contains more carbon and hydrogen endless oxygen.
When one gram of fat is oxidized it yields 9 kilocalories
FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS
1) They are the concentrated fuel reserve of the body
2) Lipids are the constituents of cell membrane structure and regulate the membrane permeability.
3) They are essential for the digestion, absorption and utilization of fat soluble vitamins like Vitamin A, D, E and K.
4) Lipids are important as cellular metabolic regulators (Steroid hormones and prostaglandin).
5) Lipids protect the internal organs serving as insulating materials.
6) As compounds of the mitochondria membranes, lipids (phospholipids) participate in electron transport chain.
7) Fat imparts palatability to the diet and slows stomach emptying time, thus giving a feeling of fullness. This delay of onset of hunger
is called satiety value of fats.
8) The calories in fat spare the proteins from being oxidized for energy.
9) Fat deposited in the adipose tissue serve as reserve source of energy during starvation. It acts as an insulator conserving the body
heat. Essential fatty acids which are derived lipids, perform
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Page 19

important functions in our body.


Functions of essential fatty acids:
1) Maintenance of the function and integrity of cellular and subcellular membrane.
2) Regulation of cholesterol metabolism by transporting it between the blood and body tissues.
3) Acts as precursor of hormone like prostaglandin which aid in regulating vascular function and help relieving pain and
inflammation.
4) Delays blood clotting time.
DIGESTION ABSORPTION AND UTILIZATION
Digestion
In the mouth:
Fat digestion starts in the mouth with hard fats beginning to melt when they reach body temperature. The salivary glands at the base of
the tongue release alipase enzyme which digest fat to a less extent in adults.
In the stomach:
In the stomach fat floats as a layer above the others components of swallowed food. As a result little fat digestion takes place.
In the small Intestine:
When fat enters the small intestine, the hormone cholescystokinin signals the gall bladder to release bile. Bile emulsifies fat and also
provides an alkaline medium for the action of pancreatic lipase and intestinal lipase. The triglycerides are acted upon by these lipases
and hydrolyzed to monoglycerides and fatty acids. The cholesterol esters are hydrolyzed to give cholesterol and fatty acids.
Triglycerides Monoglyceride + fatty acids
Cholesterol esters Cholesterol + fatty acids
Absorption and Utilisation
Small molecules of digested triglycerides (glycerol, short& medium chain fatty acids) can diffuse into intestinal cells and are absorbed
directly into the blood stream.
Larger molecules(Monoglycerides, long chain fatty acids) merge into spherical complexes known as miscelles. The lipid contents of
the miscelles diffuse into the intestinal cells. Once inside the
monoglycerides and long chain fatty acids are reassembled to new triglycerides. Within the intestinal cells the new triglycerides and
larger lipids like cholesterol and phospholipids are placed into transport vehicle called chylomicrons.The intestinal cells then release
chylomicrons into the lymphatic system. The lymph circulation empties into the thoracic duct which in turn enter the subclavian vein
and subsequently into the blood stream. The blood transport lipids to the rest of the body and cells absorb them and utilize for energy.
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This breakdown of fat to yield energy is called lipolysis. Majority of lipids enter via the lymph to the liver where the protein and lipid
(cholesterol, triglycerides) are bound together to form lipoproteins.
There are four types of lipoproteins, they are:
i) chylomicrons,
ii) very low density lipo protein (VLDL)
iii) low density lipo protein (LDL) and
iv) high density lipo proteins (HDL).
Chylomicrons, VLDL and LDL serve to transport anddeposit lipids from the intestine and liver to the tissues forabsorption.
Low-density lipoprotein, which has the highest cholesterol fraction favours lipid deposition in tissues including blood vessels and
hence termed bad cholesterol. HDL cholesterol removes the lipids from the tissues and transports it back to liver for disposal, hence
it is termed as good
cholesterol . High levels of LDL cholesterol indicates a high risk of cardiovascular disease.
Apart from lipoproteins, triglycerides, cholesterol and phospholipids are synthesized in the liver. This is called lipogenesis.
FOOD SOURCES
Foods in general contain two types of fat namely visible
fats and invisible or hidden fats.
Visible fats
Visible fats are fats extracted from the following sources.
a. Oil seeds : coconut, corn, corn seed, groundnut, mustard, palm, rice bran, safflower, sesame,
soybean, sunflower and hydrogenated vegetable oils (kimbo/kasuku/chipsy).
b. Animal fats: Butter and Ghee.
c. Fish oils: Shark and cod liver oils.
Invisible or hidden fats:
Invisible or hidden fats are those which form an integral part of foods and are therefore not visible. It includes the fats present in the
cells and cell walls and cell membranes of both
plant and animal tissues.
Almost everything we eat as listed below carries some invisible fats.
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a) Plant food Cereals, millets, vegetables, spices, nuts and


oil seeds, coconut, avocado.
b) Animal food Milk and milk products (curd, cream,
cheese), flesh foods, (mutton, beef, pork, chicken) organ
meats (brain, liver, kidney), fish, shrimp, prawn.
Sources of Saturated Fat:
Saturated fat is resistant to oxidation even at frying
temperatures. Examples are
a) Plants coconut oil, hydrogenated vegetable oils, Palm kernel oil.
b) Animals Butter, ghee, fats from flesh foods and organ meats.
Sources of Unsaturated Fat:
Unsaturated fats and oils include mono unsaturated fattyacids and PUFA in various proportions.
Important sources of unsaturated fats are as follows:
Plant sources:
All common vegetable oils with the exception of coconutoils are predominantly unsaturated. The invisible fats present innuts and
oilseeds, cereals, pulses and legumes, roots and tubers,vegetables, spices and fruits.In most plant foods and vegetable oils linoleic acid
is thepredominant PUFA, but mustard and soyabean oils,legumes/pulses. Fenugreek leaves, and green leafy vegetablesare good
sources of alpha linolenic acid.
Animal sources:
The muscles (lean meat) of flesh foods, unlike the depotfat surrounding the tissues is mainly composed of cholesterolesters and
phospholipids, both of which have a high proportion
of long chain n-6 PUFA which are otherwise formed in the bodyfrom linolenic acid.
Arachidonic acid is found in animal and human cells.Fish and fish oils provide long chain n 3 PUFA.
Hydrogenation:
Hydrogenation (addition of hydrogen at double bonds)converts liquid oils into semisolid or solid fats. Duringhydrogenation, linoleic
and alpha linolenic acid present in theoils are converted to trans fatty acids and saturated fatty acids.Also, the monounsaturated fatty
acids are converted to saturatedfatty acids.Hydrogenated fats were designed to imitate ghee. It isused to prepare processed foods like
biscuits and cakes.
Cholesterol:
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Cholesterol is a constituent of animal foods but is absent in plants. Vegetable oils do not have cholesterol. In human diets, cholesterol
is obtained from ghee, butter, cheese, milk, curd, egg, flesh foods, organ meats, fish and prawns. Most animal foods are good sources
of both cholesterol and fatty acids.
Effects of Deficiency:
Deficiency of fat in the diet causes the deficiency of essential fatty acids. Deficiency of essential fatty acids leads to cessation of
growth. It also results in flaky skin, development of itchy sores on the scalp. The common disorder in adults and children is
phrynoderma or toad skin.
The condition is characterized by the presence of horny eruptions on the posterior and lateral aspects of the limbs on the back and
buttocks. Phrynoderma is cured rapidly by the administration of linseed or safflower seed oil rich in EFA. Infants fed on a EFA
deficient diet develop irritation and changes in the skin within a few weeks. The skin changes appear as dryness and desquamation
with oozing in the folds. Diarrhoea may also occur, supplementation of the diet with linoleic acid helps to restore the skin to normal
condition.

MINERALS
MINERAL
CALCIUM

PHOSPHORUS

NMW

FUNCTION
DEFICIENCY
EXCESSES
Bone
and
tooth Stunted
growth;
formation;
blood rickets; osteomalacia;
clotting;
cell osteoporosis; tetany.
permeability; nerve (low serum calcium)
stimulation; muscle
contraction; enzyme
activation
Bone
and
tooth Stunted
growth; Unknown
formation;
energy rickets
(due
to
metabolismexcessive excretion

RDA
800mg/day, for
teenagers,
pregnant
&
lactating
women- 1200mg

SOURCES
Milk,
hard
cheese, salmon
and small fish,
dark green leafy
vegetables;
legumes.

Equal to that of Milk,


meat,
Ca+ except in poultry,
fish,
infancy. (Ca + = eggs,
cheese,
Page 23

component of ATP
&ADP;
protein
synthesis-Component
of DNA & RNA; fat
transport; acid- base
balance;
enzyme
formation
SODIUM
Osmotic
pressure;
water balance; acid
base balance; nerve
stimulation; muscle
contraction;
cell
permeability
POTASSIUM
Osmotic
pressure;
water balance; acid
base balance; nerve
stimulation; muscle
contraction; synthesis
of protein; glycogen
formation
MAGNESSIUM Component of bones
and teeth; activates
many enzymes; nerve
stimulation; muscle
contraction

IRON

NMW

rather than
deficiency)

dietary

1.5
phosphorus.

Rare:
nausea; hypertension
vomiting; giddiness;
exhaustion; cramps

of nuts, legumes,
whole
grains
and processed
foods

Adults; 1100mg- Table


salt;
3300mg/day.
salted
foods;
milk; meat; fish;
poultry &eggs.

Nausea;
vomiting;
muscular weakness;
rapid heartbeat; heart
failure.

Hyperkalemia,
Cardiac Adults; 1875mg
arrhythmias
(irregular 5625mg /day
heartbeats),
muscular
weakness & numbness of
face, tongue & symptoms of
hyperkalemia

Seen in alcoholism /
renal disease; tremors
leading to convulsive
seizures

Adults; 350mg
for men, 300mg
for women &
450mg
for
pregnant
and
lactating
mothers.
Hemochromatosis-excessive Adults; 10mg / Liver,
lean
absorption of iron due to day,
child meat; legumes;

Hemoglobin
and Anemia
myoglobin formation;

Page 24

Widely
distributed
in
foods: Meats;
whole grains;
fruits;
vegetables and
legumes
Green
leafy
vegetables;
nuts;
whole
grains;
meat;
milk; sea food

cellular enzymes

IODINE

FLUORINE
ZINC

Chlorine

NMW

inability to regulate iron bearing women


absorption
from
the 18mg / day;
intestinal lining leading to
accumulation of iron in the
liver, spleen, bone marrow,
heart and other tissues.
Synthesis of thyroid Goiter; cretinism, if
159micro
hormones
that deficiency is severe
grams / day
regulate
basal
metabolic rate.
Resists dental decay
Tooth decay in young
children
Constitute
many Delayed
wound
11yrs. 15 mg;
enzyme systems
healing;
impaired
pregnant 20mg;
taste
sensitivity.
lactating 25 mg
Severe
deficiency
may lead to retarded
growth and sexual
development;
dwarfism
Maintains
osmotic
Adults; 1700
pressure,
water
5100 mg /day
balance & acid
water
balance.
Constituent of HCL
essential for protein
digestion; enhances
CO2
carrying
function of the blood.
Page 25

dried
fruits;
green
leafy
vegetables;
whole
grains
and
fortified
cereals.
Iodized salt; sea
food

Fluoridated
water (1ppm)
Oysters,
herring, meat,
liver, fish, milk;
whole grains;
nuts; legumes

Table salt

Sulfur

Part of protein in
N/A
Protein foods.
every
cell;
component of several
vitamin Bs insulin
and
other
body
compounds
All minerals are toxic when taken in excessive amounts.
Calcium is necessary at all levels of life- consume milk at all age levels (non-fat and low fat milk have same amount of
calcium.

Avoid too much Sodium. (Use little during cooking and non at the table; limit intake of salty foods.)
Na. K relationship is important. Consume in almost equal amounts. Discourage use of K supplements. Too much K is as bad
as too little.

Discourage frequent use of anti-acids. Reducing acidity of the stomach reduces absorption of Ca. and Fe.

Use vitamin c at every meal; it increases the absorption of nonheme iron.


Cooking in uncoated iron cookware significantly increases iron intake.
Encourage the use of legumes; they are good inexpensive sources of most minerals.
FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS

Vitamin
A (retinol)

NMW

function
Formation of visual
purple; normal growth
of epithelial tissue (skin
and mucus membrane);

Deficiency
Night
and
glare
blindness; deterioration
of
epithelial
tissue
resulting in decreased

excess
Hypervitaminosis
A:
nausea; headache; dry
skin; dizziness; loss of
hair; pain in long bone
Page 26

sources
Liver; whole milk; as
carotene in dark leafy
vegetables and some
fruits.

D (calciferol)

E (tocopherols)

K (menadione)

normal bone and tooth resistance to infections;


structure.
dry scaly skin; eye
changes; xerophthalmia
(leading to blindness).
Promotes the absorption Faulty bone and tooth
of Ca. and phosphorus; development;
rickets;
normal utilization of osteomalacia
(adult
minerals in the skeletal rickets)
muscles and soft tissue.
Ant
oxidation- Destruction of red blood
protection of substances cells
that oxidize readily e.g.
vit A and essential fatty
acids; prevents damage
to cell membranes
Normal blood clotting
Prolonged clotting time;
hemorrhagic disease in
new - born

and increased
fragility.

bone

Hypervitaminosis
D:
weakness; weight loss;
nausea; growth failure &
Ca. deposits in soft
tissue.
Has anti vit k activity,
reducing
the
blood
clotting ability.

Fish liver oils; fortified


milk; direct exposure of
skin to the sunlight.

Vegetable
oils
and
shortening; margarine;
green leafy vegetables;
whole grains; legumes
and nuts.

Lowered
prothrombin Green leafy vegetable;
levels; kidney tubule Synthesis by intestinal
degeneration; jaundice bacteria.
and a type of anemia in
infants.

WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS


Vitamin
Ascorbic
(vitamin C)

NMW

function
acid Collagen formation;
strong
blood
vessels;
healthy
skin; healthy gums;
wound
healing;

Deficiency
Adult acne; easy
bruising;
poor
wound
healing;
swan neck hair
deformity;
sore

excess
No strong evidence
but can increase risk
of kidney stones,
destruction
of
vitamin B 12

RDA
Infants age 14: 3550mg/day. 15 yrs.adults: 60mg / day.
Pregnancy: 80mg /
day.
Lactating;

Page 27

sources
Citrus
fruits;
broccoli;
strawberries,
guavas;
mango,
tomatoes;
greens;

Thiamine (B1)

formation of red
blood
cells;
absorption of iron;
conversion
of
folacin to its active
form.
Energy metabolism;
synthesis of DNA,
RNA.

gums; hemorrhages
around
bones;
scurvy.

Poor
appetite; unknown
fatigue;
constipation;
neuritis of legs;
beriberi; ; wasting;
paralysis of legs;
heart failure; mental
confusion;
Riboflavin (B2)
Energy metabolism, Sensitivity to light, unknown
protein metabolism, eye
irritation;
formation of retinol glossitis.
pigments, Synthesis
of
corticoid
hormones.
Niacin / Nicotinic Body
growth, Pellagra (diarrhea
Large doses can
acid (B3)
coenzymes
in dermatitis,
cause
heartbeat
energy production dementia,
death), irregularities,
reduction
of skin
diseases, gastrointestinal and
cholesterol
(only depression, fatigue, liver disorders.
plant
sources, poor
appetite,
production of fatty weakness; anxiety.
acids,
steroids
hormones.
NMW

100mg /day.

potatoes

0.5mg / 1000kcal

Meats esp pork;


wheat germ; whole
grain; and enriched
breads;
legumes;
peanuts; nuts

0.6mg
/1000kcal. All natural foods of
Increased need in plant and animal
stress,
visual origin.
disorders,
dermatitis.
Increased need in Proteins (animal and
periods of growth, plant)
pregnancy, skin and
nervous
system
disorders.

Page 28

Pyridoxine (B6)

Folacin (Folic acid)

Cobalamin (B 12)

Pantothenic acid

NMW

Amino
acid
metabolism,
synthesis
of
regulatory
substances,
hemoglobin
synthesis,
niacin
production, energy
production, blood
formation
Protein metabolism;
Synthesis of DNA
and RNA, red blood
cells formation

Anemia;
sore unknown
mouth;
nausea;
dermatitis;
irritability;
convulsions.

Increased need in
pregnancy,
lactation, on oral
contraceptives, TB
patients, Psychiatric
patients
with
neuroses.

Whole
grains,
Legumes, bananas,
liver, kidney, red
meats,
potatoes,
cereals,
green
vegetables.

Macrocytic anemia

Protein metabolism;
Synthesis of DNA,
production of red
blood cells; healthy
nervous
system,
CHO metabolism;
myelin formation,
cell division.
Energy metabolism;
synthesis of amino
acids, fatty acids,
cholesterol, steroid
hormones,
hemoglobin

Pernicious anemia: Unknown


macrocytic anemia,
sore mouth, poor
appetite,
poor
coordination
in
walking,
mental
disturbances.

Increased need in
use
of
oral
contraceptives,
pregnancy,
&
lactation.
Increased need in
vegetarians

Green
leafy
vegetables;
liver,
kidneys; fish; nuts;
legumes;
whole
grains.
Animal
products;
yeast; algae.

7mg / day

Organ
meats;
salmon;
eggs;
brocolli;
mushrooms; pork;
whole
grains;
legumes

Unlikely

unknown

unknown

Page 29

Biotin

NMW

Metabolism
of rare
proteins, fats and
CHO.

unknown

Page 30

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