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The'Magic'BehindRadarAbsorbingMaterialsFor
StealthyAircraft
Thescience,historyandfutureofstealthmaterials
AviationWeek&SpaceTechnologyOct28,2016

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DanKatzWashington
CloakingDevices

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DanielKatzandColinThrom/AW&ST

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Thisisthethirdarticleinaseries.Stealthistraditionallyassociatedwithaircraftshaping,butasmorenationsfield
lowobservableaircraftandcounterstealthsensors,radarabsorbingmaterials(RAM)maytakeonincreasing
importance.
Typically,shapingaccountsfor90%oftheradarcrosssection(RCS)reductionofastealthaircraftandRAMthe
remaining10%.AndwhereRAMmightreduceRCSbyanorderofmagnitude,shapingcanshrinkitbythreeorfour
orders.ButRAMreducesradarreturnsfromcertainfeaturesmorethantheseguidelinesimplyand,whileprogressin
shapingmaybeplateauing,inmaterialsitisadvancingrapidly.
ElectromagneticMaterials
Theabilityofasubstancetoabsorbelectromagnetic(EM)wavesdependsontwomaterialpropertiescalled
permittivityandpermeability,whicharethecapacitytostoreelectricalormagneticenergy,respectively.Thesource
ofbothistheexistenceofelectricormagneticdipolesattheatomic,molecularorcrystallatticelevel.
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The'Magic'BehindRadarAbsorbingMaterialsForStealthyAircraft

WhenanEMwavepassesthroughthematerial,thesedipolesorient
oppositetothefieldsdirection.Insomematerials,thedipoleseffortlessly
returntoneutralaftertheEMfieldreturnstozero.Inothermaterials,the
dipolesarestickyandrequireenergytoorientthemorreturnthemto
neutral.Thatadditionalenergyislostandthematerialspermittivityor
permeabilityissaidtohavealosscomponent.

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RAMsarecompositesmadeupofamatrixmaterialandafiller.Thematrix
isalowlossdielectricmaterialwithappreciablepermittivityandnegligiblepermeability.Theyareeffectively
transparenttoEMwavesandareusuallychosenfortheirphysicalproperties.Typically,theyareinsulating
polymerslikeplastic,glass,resin,polyurethaneandrubber.Ceramicshavehigherpermeabilitiesandheattolerance.
Foamsandhoneycombshaveespeciallylowpermittivityelectricalenergystoragebecausetheycontainalotof
air.
TheRoleofMaterialsinStealth

Materialsabsorbradarwavesbystoringanddissipatingtheirelectricalormagneticcomponents
RAMisparticularlyimportantforcontrollingreturnsfromengines,edgesandsurfacecurrents
ProgressinRAMcontinuesandmaybecomeevenmoreimportanttostealthtechnology

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Onemightbetemptedtoconstructanaircraftskinfromsuchtransparentmaterials,butradarwouldthenreflectoff
objectsbeneaththesurfacesuchassensors,fuel,metallicairframeandenginepartsandthepilot.Inpractice,the
bottomlayerofastealthskinisahighlyconductivematerial,suchasmetal,whichstronglyreflectsradarwaves
beforetheyreachthecomplexreflectingenvironmentbelow.

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TheRAMfiller,meanwhile,istypicallyparticlescomposedoforcoatedwithalossymaterial.Carbonisthematerial
ofchoicefordielectricabsorptionbecauseelectricallossinessisproportionaltoconductivityandcarbons
conductivityisbelowmetalsbutaboveinsulators.Magneticabsorbers,whichhavesomepermittivitybutfargreater
permeabilitymagneticenergystoragearetypicallycarbonyliron(apurepowderedformofthemetal)oriron
oxides,alsocalledferrites.Thesematerialscanbeimpregnatedintorubberordissolvedintoapaintandferritesare
oftensinteredintotiles.

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Asitspermittivity,permeabilityandlosscomponentsincrease,amaterialcanabsorbmoreEMenergybecauseEM
wavelengthsshrinkasthesevaluesrise.Butwhenwavesreachaboundarybetweentwomediums,energycanbe
reflectedratherthanadmitted.Theamountreflecteddependsontheirimpedancesthesquarerootoftheratio
betweeneachmaterialspermeabilityandpermittivity.Thegreatertheimpedancechange,themoreenergyis
reflectedbeforeitcanbeabsorbed.SoRAMdesignmustbalanceabsorptivitywithsurfacereflectivitytomaximize
absorption.

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AmaterialsEMpropertiesalsovarywithfrequency.Athigherradarbands,
nomagneticmaterialshavepermittivityandpermeabilityinaratiocloseto
thatofair,sohighsurfacereflectionisinevitable.Butifthematerialisa
quarterwavelengthdeep,reflectionfromthemetalbackingpartiallycancels
thesurfacereflection.BecauseofthehighpermeabilityofmagneticRAM,
thedepthrequiredissmall.Absorptionperformanceof20dB(99%)is
achievedbycommerciallyavailableresonantabsorberswithresonant
frequenciesof118GHzandthicknessesof0.040.2in.Thetechniqueis
Source:DanielKatzandColin
Throm/AW&ST
inherentlynarrowband,however,withsignificantabsorptionextending
perhaps15%fromtheresonancefrequency.
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The'Magic'BehindRadarAbsorbingMaterialsForStealthyAircraft

SeeAlso
Gallery:ACloserLookatStealth,Part3
PhysicsAndProgressOfLowFrequencyCounterstealthTechnology
Gallery:ACloserLookatStealth,Parts1&2
MeasuringStealthTechnologysPerformance

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Giventhislimitedbandwidth,aswellashigherweightandcost,dielectricabsorbersarepreferredforwideband
absorptionathighfrequencies.Sincedielectricshavenomagneticproperties,theirimpedancesnevermatchair,but
byusinglayersofmaterialseachwithanincreasingconcentrationofcarbonparticlespermittivity,conductivityand
dielectriclossesallgraduallyincreasewhileimpedancegraduallydecreases.Layerscanalsobeadjustedto
maximizecancellations.Thesegradeddielectricabsorberscanreducereflectionby20dB,andtheirbandwidth
easilycovershigherfrequencies.However,theyrequiresignificantdepthtoachievelowerfrequencyperformance:1
in.forXbandand4.5in.for500MHz.

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Anotherapproachistouseaphysicalgradient.Thesegeometrictransitionabsorbersusepointedobjectsof
homogeneousmaterialorientedperpendiculartowaves.Themostcommonapplicationisthepyramidalabsorbers
thatlineanechoicchambersusedforRCStesting.Athighfrequencies,wavesbounceamongthesestructures,
losingenergywitheachstrike.Ifthewavelengthislargerelativetothestructure,thewavesactasthough
encounteringagradualchangeinmaterialpropertiesratherthanageometricshape.Absorbersofthistypecan
reducereflectionby60dB,butrequirestructures15ft.highforeffectivenessat30MHz.

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Counterintuitively,atlowerbands,somemagneticmaterialsbecomemore
effectivebecausetheirenergystoragepermeabilityincreases.At
frequenciesof301,000MHz,certainferritesexhibitextremewave
compressionandimpedanceclosetoair.Commercialferritetilescan
achieveover20dBreductioninVHFbandand10dBreductionthrough
UHF,withathicknessofonly0.25in.andaweightof7lb./ft.2.

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Thusfar,whathasbeendiscussedisreducingspecularreflectionsthose
thatbounceoffanobjectlikelightoffamirrorbutRAMisalsoparticularly
effectiveatreducingsurfacewaves.Thesearethewavesemittedby
currentsinducedinaconductivesurfacewhenstruckbyradar.Asthey
movealongthesurfacetheyemittravelingwaves,usuallyatanglesclose
tograzing,andwhentheyencounterdiscontinuitiesanairframeedge,a
gaporstepinthesurfaceorachangeinmaterialtheyemitedgewaves,
concentratedclosertothespecularreflection.Surfacecurrentstravelalong
amaterialslengthratherthanthroughitsthickness,andtheRAMactsasa Source:DanielKatzandColin
waveguide,trappingthecurrentsandabsorbingthem.MagneticRAMcan Throm/AW&ST
suppresssurfacecurrentswellinathicknessofonly0.03in.Thereare
waystocombinetechniques.LayeredmagneticmaterialscanreduceRCSby10dBfrom220GHzwith0.3in.of
depth.HybridRAMscanbecreatedwithafrontlayerofgradeddielectricandabacklayerofmagneticmaterialto
attenuateradarreflectionsfromVHFtoKuband.
Intelligence.Analysis.Insight.
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The'Magic'BehindRadarAbsorbingMaterialsForStealthyAircraft

ThisstoryisaselectionfromtheOctober31,2016issueofAviationWeek
&SpaceTechnology.Newcontentposteddailyonline.

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Browsethecurrentissue

DirtyBirdsandPiePanels

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RAMhasbeenpartofRCSreductioneffortssincetheybegan.In1943,GermanysHortenbrothersdesignedtheir
HoIXflyingwingwithwingsofplywoodsandwichedaroundamixtureofglue,sawdustandgranulatedcharcoal.RAM
wouldseeserviceinthewaraboardGermansubmarines,onwhichamaterialcalledSumpfrubberinfusedwith
carbongranules(somesourcessayamagneticfiller)wasappliedtosnorkelsandconningtowers.By1945,MITs
RadiationLaboratoryhaddevelopedarubbermaterialinfusedwithdisclikealuminumflakescalledMX410which
exhibitedantiradarproperties.

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LockheedsSkunkWorksandMITradarexpertstriedmanyconfigurationsofDirtyBirdU2s,hopingtoreduce
RCS.Thefinalapproachwasapaintloadedwithcarbonylferrite,whichloweredRCSbyanorderofmagnitude.
However,noneoftheseconfigurationspreventedRussiafromtrackingtheoverflights.

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TheU2ssuccessor,theCIAsA12andU.S.AirForceSR71,wouldusespeedandaltitudeforprotection,butthe
agencystillinsistedthatSkunkWorksreducetheaircraftsRCS.Themostimportantbreakthroughcameinshaping.
Theaircraftreceivedathin,curvedextensiontothenacelles,leadingedgesandfuselage.Thischinecreateda
continuouslycurvingairframewithsharpedgesandalargelyflatundersidethatreducedRCSby90%.

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Inaddition,around18%oftheaircraftsmaterialwasRAM.Therewasa
coatingloadedwithironferritesandlacedwithasbestostowithstandthe
highsurfacetemperaturesatMach3.Theverticaltailswerecomposed
almostentirelyofRAMandcantedinward15deg.TheA12souteredge
originallyconsistedoftriangularpiecesoftitaniumcalledfillets,butinlater
aircrafttrianglesofresistiveplastichoneycombwithglassfibersurfaces,
calledpiepanels,wereinsertedintothewingstitaniumsawtoothedges
andthefuselagechines.TheBlackbirdendedupwithanRCSequaltothat
ofaPiperCub,whichisabout4m2.
TheRoachMotel

Source:DanielKatzandColin
Throm/AW&ST

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The'Magic'BehindRadarAbsorbingMaterialsForStealthyAircraft

UnlessRAMisintegratedintoaradarabsorbingstructure,thematerialaddsweightandvolumewithoutaiding
structuralintegrity.StealthdesignhasthereforedictatedusingshapingtocontrolthelargestcontributortoRCS,
specularreflections.Thefirsttruestealthaircraft,theF117,employedafullyfacetedshapetocontroltheseand
savedRAMlargelytodealwithcavitiesandsurfacewaves.

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TheF117sskinwasaluminumcoatedalmostentirelywithRAM.Originally,thematerialcameinlinoleumlikesheets
ofaferriteloadedpolymer.Theywerebondedtotheairframesskinindifferentthicknessesatdifferentlocations.
PuttyorpaintRAMwasusedtocoverfasteners,sealgapsandsmoothunevensurfaces.Doorsandaccesspanels
weresealedbeforeeveryflightwithmetallictapeandcoveredinRAM.Initially,useofRAMpaintwasminimizedasit
ishardtoapplyataccuratethicknessandrequirestheuseoftoxicsolvents.Cockpitwindowswerecoatedwithgold
tominimizetheimpedancetransitionfromtheskinandblockradarfrompenetratingthecockpit,wherethepilots
headwouldhaveanRCS100timeslargerthantheaircraft.
Specialattentionhadtobepaidtoenginesandinletsbecausefromthefrontthesecontributemostofafighters
RCS.Engineersplacedaglassfiber,absorbentimpregnatedgridontheintakesthatactedlikearoachmotel.
Energywasabsorbedonthewayinandcouldnotgetout.Conveniently,thematerialwasconductivesoitcouldbe
heatedtopreventicing.Thefillerwaslikelycarbon,itsconcentrationincreasingfromfronttoback.Inboundradar
waveswouldseegraduallydecreasingimpedance,beadmittedandabsorbedonthewaythrough,andwhen
bouncedbacktowardthegridwouldseeasevereimpedancechangeandbereflectedbackintotheducts,which
mayalsohavebeenlinedwithRAM.

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EdgeTreatments,SilverPaintandSCurves

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SeveralimprovementsweremadetotheF117sRAMschemeduringtheprogram.Theprimarycoatingmethod
switchedtoaroboticsysteminwhichacradlepositionedtheaircraftwhilecomputercontrollednozzlesappliedthe
radarabsorbentpaint.TherewereeffortstoreduceleadingedgeRCSanddevelopnewRAMskins.Foratime,
thefleetcontainedmultipleRAMconfigurationsbeforeaprogramlaunchedinthelate1990sstandardizedthem.

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Thenextstealthaircraft,NorthropGrummansB2,wassaidtorelymoreonshapeandlessonRAMthantheF117.
Sincethestealthfightersfullyfacetedshapedealtwellwithspecularreflections,thislikelyreferredtosurfacewave
suppression.Withupperandlowersurfacescomposedentirelyofcurves,thestealthbombersshapehasno
discontinuitiestocreatestrongsurfacewavesexceptfortheedgesoftheaircraft.

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Butengineersnowhadafixforthisedgeissue.BeginningwiththeB2,all
U.S.stealthaircrafthavesportedadistinctiveedgetreatment,visibleasa
differentcoloredbandaroundtheperimeteroftheairframe.Theory
suggestswhatliesbeneath.Withinthetriangularwedgeisalightweight
material,suchasglassfiberhoneycomb,loadedwithcarbonina
concentrationthatincreasesfromtiptobase.Impedancetherefore
decreasesfromairatthetiptozeroattheconductivesurfacebehindit.
Thisallowssurfacecurrentstotransitionslowlyratherthanabruptly,aswell
asbeabsorbed.ThisarrangementsuppressesthreecontributorstoRCS: Sources:LockheedMartinandDaniel
KatzandColinThrom/AW&ST
edgewavesbyslowingsurfacecurrenttransitionstravelingwavesby
absorbingthecurrentsandedgediffractionbyabsorbingincidentradarwaves.RCSdropssignificantlyfromevery
angleandparticularlyatoffnormalangles.
TheB2hasconsiderabledepthforaneffectiveabsorbermadeofdielectricmaterialsalonebutreportsalsoindicate
theincorporationofamagneticmaterialforbetterVHFbandabsorption.Toenhancetaperandminimizediffraction,
theconductivesurfacebeneathmayalsoslowlytransitionintoanarrowwedge.

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Whileedgetreatmentscanabsorbsurfacecurrents,thosecurrentshavetoreachtheedgesandanysurface
discontinuitycanpreventthat.TheB2airframeusedasfewpanelsaspossibletominimizegaps,butchannels
arounddoorsandaccesspanelswereinevitable.Radarenergycaneveninducesurfacecurrentsinthedoorsand
panelsthemselvesand,ifthosecurrentsencounterdiscontinuities,theyemitstrongedgeandtravelingwaves
becausethefeatureshavesmalldimensions.Therefore,thosegapsmustbebridgedwithconductivecaulksor
tapes.Around3,000ft.oftapewasoriginallyrequiredforeachaircraft.Inaddition,theB2scoatingincludedasilver
paint.Theeffectofadiscontinuitydependsonitssizeandtheconductivityofitssides.Silveristhemostconductive
metal,soitsapplicationmightminimizetheeffectofgapswhilealsoabsorbingcurrentsandblockingradar
penetration.

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Tosuppressenginereturns,theB2usedaserpentineductlinedwithRAM.Bothshapeandmaterialarevitaltothis
RCSreductiontechnique.TheRAMisthin,buttheinletscurvecauseswavestobouncesomanytimesthe
absorptionaddsup.Comparedtoanotionalstraightduct,anuntreatedserpentineinletmightachieveareductionof
30dBatboresight,buttheadvantageiszerooutside5deg.offcenterline.AddRAM,andRCSdropsanother30dB
atboresightandstays3040dBbelowunlinedducts,straightorcurved,past10deg.
ChangestotheB2sRAMschemesincethe1990shavefocusedonreducingthemaintenanceburden,aswellas
RCS.Bettertapeswereintroducedalongwithstrongercaulkswithshortercuringtimes.In200310,B2salso
receivedtheAdvancedHighFrequencyMaterial:amagneticRAMroboticallyappliedtoaccesspanelstoreduce
timerequiredtorestorestealthafterroutinemaintenance.Flexiblebladesealsbecametheconductivebridgefor
somepanelsandcertaingapsweresurroundedwithnarrowbandsofmagneticRAMcalledpictureframes.

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TheMagicLayerandtheFutureofRAM

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TheF22continueduseofmanyRCSreductiontechniquesfromtheB2.Itsshapeiscomposedofblendedfacetsto
minimizesurfacewaves.Edgetreatmentisevidentaroundwings,controlsurfacesandengineinlets.Theintakesare
ScurvedandRAMcoated.MagneticRAMisalsousedoncertainpanelsandconductivetechniquesbridge
impedancegaps.

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ThelowobservablematerialsdevelopedfortheB2andF22keptRCSsmall,buttheirmaintenanceburdens
provedheavy.Theirdurabilitydisappointed,necessitatingfrequentreplacementsthatballoonedsupportcostsand
timewhilerestrictingaircraftavailability.RAMfillerstendtobespherical,afewtotensofmicrometersinsizeand
denselypacked,whichisgoodforabsorptivequalitiesbutbadfordurability.Bondingthemtoaircraftsurfacesalso
provedtroublesome.

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FromthebeginningoftheF35program,Lockheedsgoalwasachieveacceptablestealthwhilereducing
maintenanceneeds.UseofseveralRAMtechniquescontinued,includingScurved,RAMlinedducts,edge
treatmentsandwhatappeartobepictureframesabuttingmanygaps.Earlyreportsalsoindicatedthenumberof
partsmakinguptheskinwouldbeminimizedandlaseralignmentwouldfitpiecessopreciselythat99%of
maintenancerequiresnorestorationoflowobservablesurfaces,Lockheedsays.Thegoalwaslikelytomakethe
intensivegapbridgingproceduresunnecessary.
Butduringdevelopment,somethinghappened.First,programofficialsbeganhintingtheF35mightbestealthier
thantheF22hardtobelieve,givenitslessdisciplinedshape.Thenofficialsstartedreferringtoamaterialsecret,a
conductivelayer...wherethemagichappens.InMayof2010,TomBurbage,thenexecutivevicepresidentforthe
F35program,disclosedtheincorporationoffibermattechnology,describingitasthebiggesttechnical
breakthroughwevehadonthisprogram.
ThefibermatwouldreplacemanyRAMappliquesbybeingcuredintothecompositeskin,makingitdurable.
BurbagefurtherspecifiedthematfeaturedanondirectionalweavewhichwouldensureEMpropertiesdonot
varywithangle.Bakedintotheskin,thislayercouldvaryinthicknessasnecessary.Lockheeddeclinedtoprovide
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The'Magic'BehindRadarAbsorbingMaterialsForStealthyAircraft

furtherdetails,citingclassification.Withoutfurtherevidence,fibermatwouldimplyuseoffibers,ratherthanparticles,
whichwouldmakeforstrongersurfacesandthewordconductivepointstocarbonbasedRAM.
ButonlyamonthbeforeBurbagesdisclosure,Lockheedfiledapatentclaimingthefirstmethodofproducinga
durableRAMpanel.Thepatentdetailsamethodforgrowingcarbonnanotubes(CNT)onanykindoffiberglass,
carbon,ceramicormetalwithunprecedentedprecisionincontroloflength,density,numberofwalls,connectivity
andevenorientation.TheCNTinfusedfiberscanabsorborreflectradar,andconnectivityamongtheCNTsprovides
pathwaysforinducedcurrents.

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Significantly,theCNTscanbeimpregnatedwithironorferritenanoparticles.FiberscanhavedifferingCNTdensities
alongtheirlengthsandhomogenousfiberscanbelayeredormixed.Theembodimentsdescribedincludefront
layerswithimpedancematchingair,useofquarterwavelengthdepthsforcancellation,steppedorcontinuousCNT
densitygradientsandcontinuouslyvaryingdensitiesatspecificdepthsforbroadbandabsorption.Thefiberscanbe
disposedwithrandomorientationinmaterialsincludingawovenfabric,anonwovenfibermatandafiberply.
ThepatentclaimscompositeswithCNTinfusedfibersarecapableofabsorbingEMwavesfrom0.1MHzto60GHz,
abandwidthunheardofincommercialabsorbers,withparticulareffectivenessinLthroughKband.Thepatent
doesnotquantifytheabsorptivity,butdoessaythepanelswouldbenearlyablackbodyacross...variousradar
bands.Also,interestingly,alayercanbecomposedsoanattachedcomputercanreadtheinducedcurrentsinthe
fibers,makingthelayeraradarreceiver.

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Whilethepatentmentionsstealthaircraft,itdoesnotmentiontheF35specifically,andthemanufacturingreadiness
levelofthematerialatthetimeitwasgrantedisnotknown.Buttheproximityintimingandtechnologyofthefilingto
thefibermatdisclosureishardtoignore.AskedtocommentonwhetherCNTinfusedfiberRAMisinuseontheF
35andwhetheritisthetechnologytowhichBurbagehadreferred,LockheedMartinspokesmanMikeReinstated
only,Wehavenothingtoaddtowhatwasoutlinedinthepatentsubmittal.

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EvenifCNTinfusedfibersarenottheF35smagiclayer,theymayrepresentthenewstateoftheartinRAM.And
whilethismaybethebiggestdevelopmentinthetechnology,itisnottheonlyone.Newmaterialsarebeingtestedall
thetime.Inparticular,metamaterialswhichusesubwavelengthgeometricstructurestoimpartqualitiesthatdonot
existinnaturehavereceivedparticularattentionfortheirstealthapplications.Thefutureofstealthmaybe
inseparablefromthefutureofRAM.

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