Professional Documents
Culture Documents
EE5401
Cellular Mobile Communications
Dr. Chai Chin Choy
(Email : chaicc@i2r.a-star.edu.sg)
Dr. Sun Sumei
(Email : sumsm@i2r.a-star.edu.sg)
Institute for Infocomm Research (I2R)
1 Fusionopolis Way, #21-01 Connexis, Singapore 138632
Lecture notes can be downloaded from
http://www1.i2r.a-star.edu.sg/~chaicc/
Subject Outline
Part 1 (Dr. Chai)
References
1.
2.
Jon W Mark, Weihua Zhuang, Wireless Communications and Networking, Prentice Hall.
3.
Simon R Saunders, Antennas and Propagation for Wireless Communication Systems, Wiley.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
John Proakis, Digital Communications, 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill Inc., New York
Introduction
The target for mobile communications is to provide communications for anyone, from
anywhere, at any time.
A demanding task. Technological challenges include:
1. Timevarying, hostile communication channel.
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For carrier at 100MHz, at year 1940, the stability of oscillator at the base station is more than 100kHz, at year 2000 it is only 10Hz. This means less
frequency guard band is needed.
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Cellular system
Example : Consider a system allocated total bandwidth of 12.5 MHz and each voice channel
requires a 10kHz slot. We can only support 12.5MHz/10kHz = 1250 simultaneous
conversations. If the penetration rate in Singapore is 10%, for a population of 3M+, this is
equivalent to 300k users. What happen if 1% of the users making call at the same time?
So what can we do?
Answer: Channels need to be in someway reused or shared.
-
Frequency bands are reused at different locations. With this, higher user capacity in
the same frequency spectrum can be achieved.
Each cell has a base station (BS), providing the radio interface to the mobile station (MS).
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All the BSs are connected to a mobile switching centre (MSC) which is responsible for
connection users to the public switched telephone network (PSTN).
Communication between the BS and MSs is defined by a standard common air interface
that specifies 4 different physical channels:
Forward (Downlink) voice/data channel: BS to MS
Reverse (Uplink) voice/data channel: MS to BS
Forward (Downlink) control channel: BS to MS
Reverse (Uplink) control channel: MS to BS
Control channels transmit and receive data messages that carry call initiation and
service requests, and are monitored by mobiles when they do not have a call in progress.
~5% of total available channels.
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The radio propagation channel exhibits many different forms of channel impairments,
as a result of time-varying signal reflections, blockage and motion.
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Summary
Receiver
Source
Transmit
antenna
Path Loss
Multiplicative
noise
Receive
antenna
AWGN
Additive
noise
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After removing the path loss component, we result in an instantaneous fading signal
r (t ) = a (t )e j (t ) ,
When no short-term fading, (y) is a constant, long-term fading are the major factors.
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1 y+L
m ( y ) = m( y )
( x)dx ,
2L y L
where m( y ) is the true local mean. A proper chosen of L between 40 and 200 willc
1 y+L
make m ( y ) m( y ) or
( x)dx 1 .
2L y L
( y) =
a( y)
or ( y ) dB = a ( y ) dB m ( y ) dB
m ( y )
Single path fading the amplitude follows some distributions, such as Rayleigh
distribution, Rician distribution, etc.
Multipath path fading in each path, the amplitude follows some distributions.
Intersymbol Interference (ISI) is also presence.
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Non-resolvable multipath
resulting in (flat) fading
Resolvable multipath
(Frequency selective fading)
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Large scale propagation model: predict the mean signal strength for an arbitrary
transmitter-receiver (T-R) separation distance. This is useful in estimating the radio
coverage area of a transmitter.
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Small scale propagation model : characterize the rapid fluctuations of the received
signal strength over short travel distances around a few wavelength or short time
duration (short-term fading).
Propagation equation : all terms are in dB scale
LdB = L path loss,dB + Lshadowing ,dB + Lshort term fading ,dB
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Reflection, diffraction and scattering are the three major causes which impact
propagation in a mobile communication system.
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Reflection
Reflection coefficient of ground (a) vertical polarization (v) or E field in the plane of
incidence. (b) horizontal polarization (h) or E field perpendicular to the incident plane
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E (x)
k (z)
H (y)
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Propagation over smooth plane : the received signal is the phasor sum of the direct
wave and the reflected wave from the plane (2-ray model).
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Received
power in dB
First Fresnel
Third Fresnel zone
zone
40dB/decade
Second Fresnel
zone
Distance from BS
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The phase relationship between the reflected ground wave and the direct wave
changes with distance and antenna height. Signal nulls appear if the components are
in anti-phase. The first so-called Fresnel zone distance D f is a useful parameter in
cellular design.
Two ray models are only used to understand the path loss mechanism. In general,
multiple reflection paths present, and have impact on the path loss, shadowing and
short-term fading phenomenon.
In open terrian, actual measured power is normally much higher, ie, n < 4 , or logdistance path loss model is generally given as
Pr 1
Pt d
, 3 < n < 4.
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Diffraction
Diffraction allows radio signals to propagate around the curved surface of the earth,
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Knife-edge object
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Estimating the signal attenuation caused by diffraction of radio waves over hills and
buildings is essential in predicting the field strength in a given service area. It is
mathematically difficult to make very precise estimates of the diffraction losses over
complex and irregular terrian. Some cases have been derived, such as propagation
over a knife-edge object.
Multiple Knife-edge diffraction : For the presence of two knife edges, replace it by an
equivalent knife edge. One way is as follow.
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Scattering
When encountering rough surfaces, reflected energy is spread out in all directions.
It is therefore expected that the received signal is stronger than predicted from
reflection and diffraction models alone.
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Pt
Po
P
d0
Institute for Infocomm Research
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After considering all these effects, log-distance path loss model is given as
n
1
Pr
d
where n is the path loss exponent. For Free-space propagation model, n=2, and for tworay model n=4.
Be careful if we want to extrapolate the curve for d < d 0 , which follows another rule.
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Pt
Po
P1
d
d0
n0
d
d1
n1
Pr
d0
d1
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2.7 to 3.5
3 to 5
In building line-of-sight
1.6 to 1.8
Obstructed in building
4 to 6
Obstructed in factories
2 to 3
Sometime different values are used for n depending on the distance from the
transmitter.
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n does not directly reflect the strength of the received power, for example,
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Log-normal Shadowing
Two locations at the same distance from the transmitter can experience substantial
differences in signal level compared to the expected average value. This phenomenon
is caused by large buildings, foliage, etc that obstruct the propagation path and is
known as shadowing.
Experimental trails have shown that shadowing effects can be well modeled by a RV
with a log-normal distribution.
d
L path + shadowing (d ) = 10 n log10 + X
d0
Log-normal distribution
1. X = e Y where Y is normally distributed.
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X 2
dB
exp
f ( X dB ) =
2
2 X dB
2 X dB
The standard deviation X dB is known as the shadow dB spread.
1
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Empirical Models
Many empirical models have been suggested in the literature. Okumuras model has
gained widespread acceptance. This model is based entirely on measurements.
L path = L free + Amu ( f , d ) G (ht ) G (hr ) G Area
h
G (ht ) = 20 log10 ( t )
1000 m < ht < 10 m
200
h
G (hr ) = 10 log10 ( r )
hr 3 m
3
G (hr ) = 20 log10 (
hr
)
3
10 m > hr > 3 m
where Amu is the attenuation relative to free space, ht is the base station antenna
height, hr is the mobile antenna height, G(.) is the antenna height gain factor for the
base or mobile station, and G Area is the gain due to the type of environment.
Institute for Infocomm Research
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Other corrections may also be applied to Okumuras model. Some of the important
terrain such as slope of terrain, mixed land-sea parameters,
Hatas model : Empirical formulation of Okumuras model.
For a small/medium city: a(hr ) = [1.1log( f MHz ) 0.7]hr [1.56 log( f MHz ) 0.8]
For a large city, where f c < 300MHz : a (hr ) = 8.29[log(1.54hr )]2 1.1
For a large city, where f c > 300MHz : a (hr ) = 3.2[log(11.75hr )]2 4.97
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Summary
Receiver
Source
Transmit
antenna
Path Loss
Multiplicative
noise
Receive
antenna
AWGN
Additive
noise
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