Engineering Mathematics 1

Part 1 Algebra
Dr Tang Wee Kee
Division of Mathematical Sciences,
School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences,
Nanyang Technological University,
Singapore
Semester 1 2016/17

Contents
Contents

-1

1 Complex Numbers

1.1 The set of real numbers R & its subsets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2 Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3 Argand diagram & Polar representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4 Operations on complex numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4.1

Conjugate of a complex number. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4.2

Addition & Subtraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4.3

Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4.4

Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10

1.5 The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11

1.5.1

Solving irreducible quadratic equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11

1.6 De Moivres Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

1.7 Finding nth roots of z = r(cos

+ i sin ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

1.7.1

Finding nth roots of unity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18

1.7.2

Deriving Certain Trigonometric Identities I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

1.7.3

Deriving Certain Trigonometric Identities II . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

2 Vectors

21

2.1 Geometrical Representation of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21

2.2 Vector Addition & Scalar Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21

2.3 Vectors in Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23

2.3.1

Vectors in 2-space(the plane). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23

2.3.2

Vectors in 3-space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23

CONTENTS

-1

2.4 Lines and Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

32

2.4.1

Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

32

2.4.2

Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

36

3 Matrices

39

3.1 Matrix Notation and Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

39

3.2 Arithmetic Operations of Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

43

3.2.1

Addition & Subtraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

43

3.2.2

Scalar Multiplication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

43

3.2.3

Matrix Multiplication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

45

3.3 Transpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

47

3.4 Matrix Inverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

48

3.4.1

Invertible Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.4.2

The inverse A

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

49

3.4.3

Invertible 2 by 2 matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

50

3.5 Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

53

3.6 Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

53

48

3.6.1

Cofactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

54

3.6.2

Determinants of Special Matrices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

58

3.7 Adjoint of A (Optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

60

3.8 Cramers Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

61

3.9 Proofs (Optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

64

CONTENTS

Chapter 1
Complex Numbers
1.1

The set of real numbers R & its subsets

The following are some commonly used sets of numbers.

1. The set of natural numbers, N = f0; 1; 2; 3; : : :g:
2. The set of integers Z = f: : : ; 3; 2; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3; : : :g:
n
o
3. The set of rational numbers Q = pq : p; q 2 Z and q 6= 0 :

A number is rational if and only if it has a recurring decimal representation. (E.g.,

0:111:::: = 91 ; 21 = 0:5 = 0:500000::::):

Question: Is there a rational number x such that x2 = 2?

Answer: No. The set Q of rational numbers is "incomplete". It has many holes.
Numbers
p with non-recurring decimal representations are called irrational numbers.
E.g., 2; ; e are irrationals. The sets of rational numbers and irrational numbers
together form the set of real numbers.
4. The set of real numbers is denoted by R.
Question: Is the set of real numbers su cient to handle all our mathematical encounters?

1.2

Complex Numbers

Does the quadratic equation x2 + 1 = 0 have a real root? That is, are there real numbers x
at which x2 = 1?
The answer is NO, because we have x2

0 for every real number x.

1

CHAPTER 1. COMPLEX NUMBERS

To deal with the above irreducible quadratic equation, a new symbol iis introduced,
where i2 = 1. Thus, x2 + 1 = 0 has two distinct roots namely i and i.
Powers of i
i2 =

1;

i3 = (i2 )(i) =

i;

i4 = (i2 )(i2 ) = ( 1)( 1) = 1; i5 = (i4 )(i) = i; : : :

Let k 2 Z. Then we have
i4k = (i4 )k = 1; i4k+1 = i; i4k+2 =

1; i4k+3 =

i:

Note: Values of in depends on the remainder when n is divided by 4.

Denition 1.2.1. A complex number z is a mathematical object of the form x + yi, where
x and y are real numbers.
Remark 1.2.2. The real numbers x and y are called the real part and imaginary part of
the complex number z respectively. We denote the real and imaginary parts of a complex
number z by Re(z) and Im(z) respectively.
We represent the set of all complex numbers by C.
Example 1.2.3. Examples of complex numbers are:
3 + 5i; 3:5

i;

3 + i; + 9i;

Re(3 + 5i) = 3 and Im(3 + 5i) = 5:

Denition 1.2.4. (Equality of complex numbers.)
Two complex numbers z = x + yi and z 0 = x0 + y 0 {, where x; x0 ; y and y 0 are real numbers,
are said to be equal if
x = x0 and y = y 0 :
That is, Re(Z) = Re(z 0 ) and Im(Z) = Im(z 0 ).
Example 1.2.5. Suppose x and y are real numbers such that the two complex number
(2x 3) + 5i and (x + 7) (y + 1)i are equal. Find the values of x and y.

1.3. ARGAND DIAGRAM & POLAR REPRESENTATION

Remark 1.2.6.
(1) We identify every real number x as a complex number x = x + 0i. In view of this we
may think of the set of real number as a subset of the set of complex numbers, i.e.,
R C.
(2) We say that a complex number z = x + iy is purely imaginary if the real part of z,
namely x, is zero.

1.3

Argand diagram & Polar representation

Argand Diagram.
1. Since each complex number z is determined uniquely by its real and imaginary parts,
we can represent each complex number by a unique point on the xy-place, i.e., by
identifying each complex number z = x + yi by the point with coordinate (x; y):
We can also view each z = x + iy on the Argand diagram as a vector with initial point
(0; 0) and terminal point (x; y).
Im

x + iy

iy

Re

Modulus and Argument

1. From the Argand diagram, the vector (x; y) representing a complex number z = x + iy
can also be determined by stating the distance from the point (x; y) to the origin,
together with the angle the line segment from (0; 0) to (x; y) made with the positive
x-axis in the anticlockwise direction.
We shall such distance the modulus of z, denoted by jzj, and such an angle an
argument of z, p
denoted by arg(z). So, the modulus jzj of the complex number
z = x + yi is jzj = x2 + y 2 and its argument arg(z) is the angle such that tan = xy
such that

CHAPTER 1. COMPLEX NUMBERS

x = jzj cos

and

y = jzj cos :

Note: If arg(z) = ,then arg(z) = + 2k , for every integer k.

In particular, when the angle
principal argument of z.

is chosen such that

<

, we say this is the

2. Polar representation.
Using the modulus and argument we can express a complex number z = x + iy as
z = r(cos + i sin ) or z = rcis , where r = jzj and is an argument of z. This
representation is known as the polar form (also known as trigonometric form ) of z.

3. Exponential form of z

The exponential form of a complex number z = r(cos + i sin ) is z = rei :

This is commonly used in electronics, engineering and physics. It is convenient in discussing multiplication, division of complex numbers.

1.3. ARGAND DIAGRAM & POLAR REPRESENTATION

Example 1.3.1. Let z = 3

3i:

(a) Find the modulus and principal argument of z, and hence nd its polar representation.
(b) Write down the exponential form of z.

Example 1.3.2. Express z = 5e

5
3

in rectangular form.

CHAPTER 1. COMPLEX NUMBERS

1.4

Operations on complex numbers

In this section, we discuss taking conjugation of a complex number, and four arithmetic
operations between two complex numbers. We shall also look at the representation of these
operations in Argand diagram. We also state and discuss related properties.

1.4.1

Conjugate of a complex number.

Denition 1.4.1. The conjugate of a complex number z = x + yi is the complex number

z = x yi.
Other notation for the complex conjugate of z is z .
Argand Diagram representing z and z:

Example 1.4.2. Write down the conjugates of each of the following complex numbers:
z
3 + 5i
10
3:5
p i
3+i
p

+ 9i
7i

1.4. OPERATIONS ON COMPLEX NUMBERS

Conjugate in Polar Form

The conjugate of the complex number
z = r (cos + i sin ) (in polar form) or z = rei (in exponential form), is respectively
z
z
Proposition 1.4.3.

= r (cos(
= re i :

) + i sin(

)) ; or

(a) For every complex number z, we have (z) = (z ) = z.

(b) A complex number z is real if and only of z = z.

(c) A complex number z is imaginary if and only of z =

z.

(d) For every complex number z, note that jzj = jzj and arg(z)) =

arg(z).

CHAPTER 1. COMPLEX NUMBERS

1.4.2

Addition & Subtraction

Complex numbers can be added or subtracted by adding or subtracting the real parts and
the imaginary parts separately. Formally we dene the two operations as follows:
Denition 1.4.4. Given two complex numbers z1 = x1 + y1 i and z2 = x2 + y2 i, we dene
z1

z2 = (x1 + y1 i)

(x2 + y2 i) = (x1

x2 ) + (y1

y2 )i:

Example 1.4.5.
(a) (3 + 5i) + (3:5 i) = 6:5 4i
p
p
(b) (
3 + i) ( + 9i) = (
3

) + ( 8)i

Proposition 1.4.6.
(i) z + 0 = z = 0 + z, where 0 = 0 + 0i is the real number zero.
(ii) For every z = x + iy, the complex number
( z1 ) + z.

z=

x + ( y)i satises z + ( z) = 0 =

(iii) z1 + z2 = z2 + z1 (Commutative Law for Addition).

(iv) (z1 + z2 ) + z3 = z1 + (z2 + z3 ) (Associative Law for Addition).
(v) z1

1.4.3

z2 = z1

z2 .

Multiplication

To multiply two complex numbers z1 = x1 + y1 i and z2 = x2 + y2 i, we can perform the

multiplication treating i as a symbol. But we replace i2 by ( 1) when we simplify it :
z1 z2 = (x1 + y1 i)(x2 + y2 i)
= x1 x2 + x1 y2 i + (y1 i)x2 + (y1 i)(y2 i)
= (x1 x2 y1 y2 ) + (x1 y2 + x2 y1 )i
Example 1.4.7. Evaluate (3 + 5i) (2

Proposition 1.4.8.

i)

(i) z 1 = z = 1 z.

(ii) z1 z2 = z2 z1 (Commutative Law for product).

(iii) (z1 z2 ) z3 = z1 (z2 z3 ) (Associative Law for product).

1.4. OPERATIONS ON COMPLEX NUMBERS

(iv) z1 z2 = z1 z2 .
(v) z z = jzj2 . In particular, if z 6= 0, then z z > 0.
(vi) z1 (z2 + z3 ) = z1 z2 + z1 z3 (Distributive Property)
Product in Polar Form
From the above algebraic expression, it is not clear there is a geometrical relationship
between z1 , z2 and their product. We shall express the product in polar representation to
deduce a geometrical relation.
Let us express the two complex numbers in polar form:
z1 = r1 (cos

+ i sin

1)

and z2 = r2 (cos

+ i sin

2 ).

We have
z1 z2 = r1 (cos
= r1 r2 [(cos

cos

sin

= r1 r2 (cos(

+ i sin
1

sin

1)

2)
2)

r2 (cos

+ (cos

sin

+ i sin(

+ i sin
2

2)

+ sin

cos

2 )i]

2 )) :

Proposition 1.4.9.
1. Modulus of the product is the product of moduli:
jz1 z2 j = r1 r2 = jz1 j jz2 j
2. Argument of the product is the sum of arguments:
arg(z1 z2 ) =

= arg(z1 ) + arg(z2 ):

This implies the complex number z1 z2 lies on the line obtained by rotating the line
segment representing z1 by the angle arg(z2 ).
Represent the product of z1 and z2 on an Argand diagram:

Remark For a complex number z, the complex number z (cos + i sin ) is represented
on the Argand diagram by by rotating z through .

10

CHAPTER 1. COMPLEX NUMBERS

1.4.4

Division

Recall that to express

p
1
p in the form a + b 5, we perform the following
3+2 5

3
1
p
3+2 5 3

p
p
2 5
3 2 5
3
p =
p
=
29
2 5
32 + (2 5)2

2p
5:
29

In a similar way, to divide a complex number z1 = x1 + y1 i by a non-zero complex

number z2 = x2 + y2 i (i.e., z2 6= 0), we use the conjugate z2 = x2 y2 i, where z2 z2 = x22 + y22
is a positive real number.
We have
z1
z1 z2
=
z2
z2 z2
=
Example 1.4.10. Evaluate

z1 z2
z1 z2
=
z2 z2
jz2 j2

3+5i
:
2 i

Division in Polar Form

In polar form, we have z1 = r1 (cos

+ i sin

1)

and z2 = r2 (cos

z1
jz1 j
=
z2
jz2 j
arg(

z1
) = arg(z1 )
z2

arg(z2 )

Thus, we have
z1
r1
= (cos(
z2
r2

2)

+ i sin(

2 )) :

+ i sin

2 ),

such that

1.5. THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF ALGEBRA

Example 1.4.11. Let z = cos + i sin . Find jzj and show that

1.5

11
1
z

= z.

The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Theorem 1.5.1 (The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra). Every polynomial equation of the
form
an x n + an 1 x n 1 +
+ a1 x + a0 = 0;
in which the coe cients a0 ; a1 ; : : : ; an 1 ; an are any complex numbers, whose degree n is
greater than or equal to one, and whose leading coe cient an is not zero, has exactly n roots
in the complex number system, provided each multiple root of multiplicity m is counted as m
roots.
Proof (Omitted): Textbook on theory of complex analysis.

1.5.1

Solving irreducible quadratic equation

Recall that for a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 (or simply a quadratic expression), its
discriminant ,D, is dened as D = b2 4ac.
(i) If D > 0, the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has two distinct real roots given by
x=

b2
2a

4ac

12

CHAPTER 1. COMPLEX NUMBERS

(ii) If D = 0, the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has repeat real roots given by
x=

b
:
2a

(iii) If D < 0, the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has two distinct complex roots given
by
p
(b2 4ac)
b i
:
x=
2a
Note that the two complex roots are conjugate of each other.
When D < 0, the quadratic equation or expression is said to be irreducible.
Example 1.5.2. Solve the quadratic equation 2x2

3x + 5 = 0.

In fact there is a more general result, stated below, which we are ready to prove.
Polynomial with Real Coe cients
Theorem 1.5.3. Suppose p(x) = an xn + an 1 xn 1 + + a1 x + a0 is a polynomial in x with
real coe cients ak s. If z is a solution to p (x) = 0, then the conjugate z is also a solution
of p (x) = 0:
For example: suppose z0 is a complex root of 9x5 +7x2 6x+ = 0, then
is
5
2
also a complex root of 9x + 7x 6x + = 0. Therefore,
is a quadratic factor of 9x5 + 7x2 6x + . Moreover, (x z0 )(x z0 ) = x2 (z0 + z0 )x + z z0
is a real coe cient quadratic factor.
As a consequence of the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra and the above result, we have
the following useful result.

1.5. THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF ALGEBRA

13

Theorem 1.5.4. Every odd degree polynomial p(x) with real coe cients has at least one
real root.
For example: 9x5 + 7x2

6x +

= 0 has at least one real root.

14

CHAPTER 1. COMPLEX NUMBERS

1.6

De Moivres Theorem

In this section, we shall state and prove de Moivres Theorem. For a positive integer n, we
use De Moivres Theorem to nd n-th root of a complex number. In particular, we apply it
to determine all distinct n-th roots of unity.
Theorem 1.6.1 (De Moivres Theorem).
For every integer n,
(cos + i sin )n = cos n + i sin n :
We look at some examples to illustrate the theorem before we discuss its proof.
Example 1.6.2. Express each of the following complex numbers in the form cos n +i sin n .
(a) (cos + i sin )9
(b) (cos + i sin )

Example 1.6.3. Simplify each of the following complex numbers:

(a) (cos

+ i sin 4 )

(b) (cos

+ i sin 3 )9

Example 1.6.4. Express each of the following complex numbers in the form (cos +i sin )n .
(a) cos 7 + i sin 7 .
(b) cos 5

i sin 5

1.7. FINDING N TH ROOTS OF Z = R(COS

1.7

15

+ I SIN )

Finding nth roots of z = r(cos

+ i sin )

We begin with an example to have a geometrical idea of nding roots of a complex number.
Example 1.7.1. Find all distinct cube roots of z = cos

The cube roots of cos

(cos

+ i sin

+ i sin

are:

7
7
13
13
+ i sin ); (cos
+ i sin ) & (cos
+ i sin
):
9
9
9
9
9
9

16

CHAPTER 1. COMPLEX NUMBERS

Theorem 1.7.2 (Distinct nth roots).

Consider a complex number z in polar form
z = r(cos

+ i sin ); where r > 0 and

The nth distinct roots of the complex number z = r(cos

zk =

p
n

r cos

2k +
n

+ i sin

2k +
n

<

+ i sin ) are

; k = 0; 1; 2; 3; : : : ; n

1:

Theorem 1.7.3 (Distinct nth roots - exponential form).

In exponential form, we have all n distinct nth roots of the complex number z = rei are
zk =

p
n

r ei

+2k
n

; k = 0; 1; 2; 3; : : : ; n

1:

The n integers can be chosen to be any n consecutive integers.

p
Example 1.7.4. Find all 5th roots of 3 + i

1.7. FINDING N TH ROOTS OF Z = R(COS

17

+ I SIN )

Corollary 1.7.5. The n distinct complex numbers

wk = cis (

2k
2k
2k
) = cos( +
) + i sin( +
); k = 0; 1; 2; : : : ; n
n
n
n
n
n

are all n distinct roots of cos + i sin .

Example 1.7.6. The nine distinct 9th roots of cos
wk = cis (

+ i sin

= i are

+ 4k
=2 2k
+
) = cis (
); k = 0; 1; 2; 3; : : : ; 8;
9
9
18

They are
cis (

18

); cis (

5
9
13
17
21
25
29
33
); cis ( ) = cis = i; cis ( ); cis (
); cis (
); cis (
); cis ( ) & cis ( )
18
18
2
18
18
18
18
18
18

18

CHAPTER 1. COMPLEX NUMBERS

1.7.1

Finding nth roots of unity.

Note that 1 = 1 + 0i = cos 0 + i sin 0 = cos 2k + i sin 2k , where k is an integer. We call

n-th roots of 1 the n-th roots of unity.
Corollary 1.7.7 (nth roots of unity). The n distinct nth roots of unity are
zk = cos

2k
2k
+ i sin
; k = 0; 1; 2; 3; : : : ; n
n
n

1:

By De Moivres Theorem, we have zk = (z1 )k .

On the Argand diagram, all n-th roots of 1 are represented by points on the unit circle
and they are equally spaced by 2n :

Eulers Formula

Here, we introduce the Eulers Formula which help us in representing a complex number. In
advanced courses in mathematics, a formal denition of ez is discussed via series.
If we represent the unit complex number cos + i sin by ei , i.e.,
ei = cos + i sin ;
then for each integer n, we have
cos n + i sin n = ein :
Treating ei as exponential in , we note that
ei(n ) = ei

= (cos + i sin )n :

The representation ei = cos + i sin , is known as Eulers formula. It leads to the

following denition of ez where z = r cos + i sin ) is a complex number,

1.7. FINDING N TH ROOTS OF Z = R(COS

1.7.2

19

+ I SIN )

Deriving Certain Trigonometric Identities I

We can use De Moivres Theorem to express cos n , sin n and tan n in terms of powers of
cos , sin and tan .
Tools:
cos n = Re(cos n + i sin n ) = Re (cos + i sin )n ;
sin n = Re(cos n + i sin n ) = Im (cos + i sin )n ;
Apply binomial expansion to (cos + i sin )n
Notation used: c

cos , s

sin , t

tan .

Example 1.7.8. Express sin 3 in terms of powers of sin :

The rst step is to note that
sin 3 = Im(cos 3 + i sin 3 )
Now, we apply de Moivres theorem
sin 3

=
=
=
=
=
=

Im(cos 3 + i sin 3 )
Im (cos + i sin )3 (why?)
Im (c + is)3
Im (c3 + 3c2 is + 3ci2 s2 + i3 s3 )
Im (c3 3cs2 + i(3c2 s s3 ))
3c2 s s3

Using c2 + s2 = 1, we have
sin 3

=
=
=
=

3c2 s s3
3(1 s2 )s s3
3s 4s3
3 sin
4 sin3 :

From the above, we have also obtained an expression for cos 3 :

cos 3 = c3

3cs2 = c3

3c(1

c2 ) = 4c3

3c

Using the expression for both sin 3 and cos 3 , we obtain a similar expression for tan 3 :
sin 3
3c2 s s3
= 3
cos 3
c
3cs2
3c2 s s3 1=c3
3t t3
= 3
:
=
c
3cs2 1=c3
1 3t2
tan 3 =

20

CHAPTER 1. COMPLEX NUMBERS

1.7.3

Deriving Certain Trigonometric Identities II

Aim: to express cosn

sin k .

or sinn

in terms of cosines and sines of multiples of , i.e. cos k ,

Main Tool: Let z = cos + i sin , we have

= 12

z+
Thus we have cos
and group z k and z1k together.

1
z

and sin

= 2i1

1
z

i sin .

= cos
1
z

: Next, we apply binomial expansion

By De Moivres Theorem, we have

z k = cos k + i sin k and

1
= cos k
zk

i sin k

which gives
zk +

1
= 2i sin k :
zk

1
= 2 cos k and z k
zk

Thus, we obtain an expression involving sines and cosines of multiple of .

Example 1.7.9. Prove that cos3 = 14 (cos 3 + 3 cos )
Proof. Let z = cos + i sin . We have
3

cos

1
8

= (cos ) =

1
1
1
z 3 + 3z 2 + 3z( )2 + ( )3
z
z
z
=

1
1
(z + )
2
z
=

1
8

(z 3 +

1
1
) + 3(z + )
3
z
z

1
1
[2 cos 3 + 3(2 cos )] = (cos 3 + 3 cos ) :
8
4

Chapter 2
Vectors
Vectors are quantities which have both magnitude and direction. Examples of vectors include
acceleration, displacement, force, momentum and velocity.

2.1

Geometrical Representation of Vectors

We may use a directed segment to represent a vector graphically. The directed segment
!
from a point A to a point B is denoted by AB: The length jABj of the segment represents
the magnitude of the vector.
We may also use lower case bold letters u, v, w to denote vectors.

Two vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and direction.
Given a vector v, its negative
direction.

v is the vector with the same magnitude and opposite

The zero vector 0 is a vector with zero magnitude.

2.2

Vector Addition & Scalar Multiplication

Vector Addition and Subtraction

Given two vectors u and v, we add them to form a new vector u + v as follows:
!
!
!
!
!
!
If u = AB and v = BC; then u + v = AC: Or simply AB + BC = AC:
21

22

CHAPTER 2. VECTORS

A
B

v
u

-u

u
C

u+v

Vector Addition

Vector Subtraction

!
!
!
If u = OA and v = OB; then AB = v

!
!
u: Or simply AB = OB

!
OA:

Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition

R
Q
u+v
u
v

Scalar multiple of vector

If

> 0; then v is a vector in the direction of v with magnitude

jvj :

Conversely, any vector that has the same direction as v must be equal to v for some
> 0:
Properties of vector addition and scalar multiplication

u + v = v + u;
u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w;
( v) = (

) v; ;

2 R,

( + ) v = v+ v; ;
(u + v) = u + v;

2 R,
2 R:

2.3. VECTORS IN COORDINATE SYSTEM

2.3
2.3.1

23

Vectors in Coordinate System

Vectors in 2-space(the plane).
y

We may position a vector v in the plane R2 with its initial

point at the origin O and the terminal point (v1 ; v2 ) and we write
v = (v1 ; v2 ) ; or v =u1 i + v2 j; where i and j are unit vectors in the
positive direction of x and y axis respectively.
v1
The vector v may be written in the column vector form v =
v2

v2

j
i

Suppose u = (u1 ; u2 ) and v = (v1 ; v2 )

1. u = (u1 ; u2 ) is the zero vector if and only if u1 = u2 = 0.
2. Two vectors u = (u1 ; u2 ) and v = (v1 ; v2 ) are equal if and only if u1 = u1 and u2 = u1 .
3. u + v = (u1 ; u2 ) + (v1 ; v2 ) = (u1 + v1 ; u2 + v2 ) :
4.

2.3.2

u = (u1 ; u2 ) = ( u1 ; u2 ) ;

2 R:

Vectors in 3-space

Consider a rectangular coordinate system, with three mutually perpendicular lines, called
coordinate axes, passing through a point called the origin.
z
(0, y 0, z 0)

z0

P(x 0, y 0, z 0)

j
i

y0
y

x0
(x 0, y 0, 0)
x

Note that we use a right-handed system:

With your palm of right hand along the positive x-axis, rotate 90 towards the positive
y-axis, your thumb points in the positive z-axis.

v1

24

CHAPTER 2. VECTORS

Like vectors in 2-space, a vector in 3-space from the point P1 = (x1 ; y1 ; z1 ) to the point
!
P2 = (x2 ; y2 ; z2 ) will be the vector P1 P2 = (x2 x1 ; y2 y1 ; z2 z1 ). In particular, if the
!
starting point is the origin O = (0; 0; 0) and the end point P = (x0 ; y0 ; z0 ), then OP =
(x0 0; y0 0; z0 0) = (x0 ; y0 ; z0 ).
The numbers x0 ; y0 and z0 are called the components of v.
We also write
v =x0 i+y0 j+z0 k;
where i, j and k are unit vectors in the positive direction of0x, y 1
and z axis respectively.
x0
The vector v may be written in the column vector form v = @ y0 A.
z0

Suppose u = (u1 ; u2 ; u3 ) and v = (u1 ; v2 ; v3 ) are two vectors in 3-space. Then we have
the following:
1. u = (u1 ; u2 ; u3 ) is the zero vector if and only if u1 = 0, u2 = 0 and u3 = 0.
2. Two vectors u = (u1 ; u2 ; u3 ) and v = (u1 ; v2 ; v3 ) are equal if and only if u1 = u1 ,
u2 = v2 and u3 = v3 .
3. u + v = (u1 ; u2 ; u3 ) + (u1 ; v2 ; v3 ) = (u1 + u1 ; u2 + v2 ; u3 + v3 ):
4. ku = k(u1 ; u2 ; u3 ) = (ku1 ; ku2 ; ku3 ).

Length or norm of a vector

In 2-space, the length, (or norm, magnitude) of a vector u = (u1 ; u2 ) is kuk =
p
In 3-space, the length of a vector u = (u1 ; u2 ; u3 ) is kuk = u21 + u22 + u23 .
Example 2.3.1. Evaluate the norm of following vectors:
(a) u = (2; 5) in 2-space.
(b) v = ( 1; 2; 2) in 3-space.
(c) u = ( p12 ; 0;

Solution

p1 )
2

in 3-space.

p
u21 + u22 :

2.3. VECTORS IN COORDINATE SYSTEM

25

Remark The distance d between two points P = (u1 ; u2 ; u3 ) and Q = (u1 ; v2 ; v3 ) is given
!
!
by the norm kP Qk of the vector P Q,
d=

p
(v1

u1 )2 + (v2

u2 )2 + (v3

u3 )2 :

Note that it follows from the denition of ku that kkuk = jkjkuk.

Unit Vectors

p
p
A vector of length 1 is called a unit vector. The vector u = ( 1= 2; 0; 1= 2) is a unit
vector.
In particular, the following vectors
i = (1; 0; 0); j = (0; 1; 0) and k = (0; 0; 1)
are unit vectors along the positive direction of x-, y- and z-axes respectively.
It follows that:
1
u is the unit vector along the direction u.
For a nonzero vector u, the vector u
^ = kuk

Dot product and projections

The dot product (or scalar product) of two non-zero vectors

u and v is dened by u v = jjujj jjvjj cos ;
where 2 [0; ] is the angle between the two vectors.
If either of u or v is a zero vector, then dene u v = 0:

Example 2.3.2. Find the dot product of each pair of vectors.

(a) u = (1; 1) and v = (2; 0).
(b) u = (1; 1) and w = (0; 2).
(c) u = (1; 1) and s = (2; 2).
Solution

26

CHAPTER 2. VECTORS

Properties of dot product

1. The dot product of
two vectors is a real number (scalar).
2. u v = v u:;

5. ( u) ( v) = (

6. u (v + c) = u v + u c:

3. For any vector u, u u = jjujj2 ,

7. (u + v) c = u c + v c:

4. Suppose that u and v are non-zero vectors,

then u v = 0 , u ? v:

Dot product of vectors in column vectors form

Proposition 2.3.3. If u =

u1
u2

and v =

v1
v2

; then u v =u1 v1 + u2 v2 :

Proof. Since u = u1 i + u2 j and v = v1 i + v2 j;

u v = (u1 i + u2 j) (v1 i + v2 j)
= (u1 v1 ) i i+ (u1 v2 ) i j+ (u2 v1 ) j i+ (u2 v2 ) j j
= u1 v1 jjijj2 + u2 v2 jjjjj2 ; since i j =0 (i ? j)
= u 1 v 1 + u2 v 2 :

Similarly, we can show that:

0
1
0
1
u1
v1
If u = @ u2 A and v = @ v2 A ; then u v =u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3 :
u3
v3
Example 2.3.4. Find the u v if u = (2; 3; 1) and v = (1; 0; 5) :

Solution We have
u v = (2; 3; 1) (1; 0; 5) = 2(1) + 3(0) + ( 1)(5) =

Since u v < 0, the angle

) u v:

3:

between the two vectors is an obtuse angle.

2.3. VECTORS IN COORDINATE SYSTEM

27

Angle between two vectors

The above formula for dot product turns out to be very useful, especially in nding the
angle between two given vectors.
If

is the angle between two vectors u and v; then

u v
:
cos =
jjujj jjvjj

Example 2.3.5. Find the angle between u = i+2j 2k and v = 2i+3j 6k:
Solution Let

denote the angle between u and v:

u v = (1) (2) + (2) (3) + ( 2) ( 6) = 20:

q
jjujj = (
)2 + (
)2 + (
)2 = 3
q
)2 + (
)2 + (
)2 = 7
jjvjj = (
Then

cos =
=

u v
jjujj jjvjj

20
:
21

20
= 0:310 rad
21
Example 2.3.6. Find the angle between u = i 2j+2k and v = 2i+3j 6k:
= cos

Solution Let

denote the angle between u and v:

u v = ( 1) (2) + ( 2) (3) + (2) ( 6) = 20:

q
jjujj = (
)2 + (
)2 + (
)2 = 3
q
jjvjj = (
)2 + (
)2 + (
)2 = 7
Then

cos =
=

=
=

u v
jjujj jjvjj

20
( cos < 0 implies that is
21
20
cos 1
=
rad
21

28

CHAPTER 2. VECTORS

Work Done
One of the many applications of dot product in science and engineering is to compute
work done. Recall that force and displacement are vector quantities, they have magnitude
and direction.
The work done by a constant force F acting through a displacement D is the dot product
W = F D:
F
D

Example 2.3.7. If kFk = 50N , kDk = 30 m, and

from P to Q is given by

= 45 , then the work done by F acting

W = F D = kFk kDk cos

1
150
= (50) (30) p = p J.
2
2
Projection of a vector
Q

!
!
!
If u = P Q and v =P R, then P S
is the (perpendicular) projection of u onto v:

v
S

The length of projection of u onto v =

!
PS =

!
P Q cos
= jjujj

u v
u v
=
:
jjujj jjvjj
jjvjj

Then the vector projection of u onto v; projv u

= length of projection

v
^=

u v
jjvjj

v
^=

u v
v
:
jjvjj jjvjj

Example 2.3.8. Find the vector projection of u = i 2j+2k onto v = 2i+3j 6k:

2.3. VECTORS IN COORDINATE SYSTEM

29

Solution
u v=

16
q
jjujj = (
q
jjvjj = (

)2 + (

)2 + (

)2 = 3

)2 + (

)2 + (

)2 = 7

v
2i+3j 6k
=
:
jjvjj
7
Then the vector projection of u onto v =

Therefore v
^=

projv u =
=

u v
jjvjj

v
^

16
(2i+3j 6k) :
49

Cross product
The cross product (or vector product) of
two vectors u and v is dened as
u v = (jjujj jjvjj sin ) n
^;
where is the angle between u and v,
and n
^ is the vector perpendicular to both u and v,
governed by the right hand rule
(u-index nger, v-middle nger, n-thumb, of right hand).

Properties of cross product:

1. The cross product of two vectors is a vector.
2. If u and v are parallel, then
3. u

v=

4. u

(v + w) = u

5. ( u)

Example 2.3.10. i

v = 0:

u (anti-commutative).

( v) = (

Example 2.3.9. i

= 0 and thus u

v+u
) (u

i=j

w (distributive wrt addition).

v) :
j=k

j = k; j

k =0

k = i; k

i=j

n
v

30

CHAPTER 2. VECTORS

Discriminant formula for cross product

0
1
0
1
u1
v1
Theorem 2.3.11. If u = @ u2 A and v = @ v2 A ; then
u3
v3
i
v= u1
v1

j
u2
v2

u2
v2

u3
v3

k
u3
v3
u1
v1

u3
v3

j+

u1
v1

u2
v2

k:

Proof.
u

v= (u1 i+u2 j+u3 k) (v1 i+v2 j+v3 k)

= u1 v1 i i+u1 v2 i j+u1 v3 i k
+ u2 v1 j i+u2 v2 j j+u2 v3 j k
+ u3 v1 k i+u3 v2 k j+u3 v3 k k
= 0+u1 v2 k+u1 v3 ( j)
+ u2 v1 ( k) +0+u2 v3 (i)
+ u3 v1 (j) +u3 v2 ( i) +0
= (u2 v3 u3 v2 ) i (u1 v3 u3 v1 ) j + (u1 v2
=

u2
v2

Example 2.3.12. Find u

u3
v3

u1
v1

u3
v3

j+

u1
v1

u2
v2

u2 v 1 ) k

k:

v if u =(1; 1; 1) and v = (1; 0; 1):

Solution
u

v = (1; 1; 1) (1; 0; 1)
1 1
1 1
1 1
=
;
;
0 1
1 1
1 0

Applications of Vector product

1. Perpendicular Vector
The cross product u v provides a vector perpendicular to both u and v. From this,
we may obtain a unit vector in this direction.

2.3. VECTORS IN COORDINATE SYSTEM

31

^ which is perpendicular to both u = (1; 1; 1) and

Example 2.3.13. Find a unit vector n
v = (1; 0; 1):
Solution From the previous example,
u

v = (1; 0; 1):

Thus, we have
1
^ = p (1; 0; 1):
n
2
2. Area of parallelogram ABCD
=base height
= jjBCjj h
= jjBCjj jjABjj cos
!
!
= AB BC :
3. Area of triangle ABC =

1
2

C
b

of Area of parallelogram ABCD =

1
2

!
AB

!
BC :

Example 2.3.14. Find the area of triangle whose vertices are A (1; 0; 0) ; B (0; 1; 0) and
C (0; 0; 1).
!
!
Solution Area of triangle ABC = 21 AB BC :
0 1 0 1 0
1
0
1
1
!
!
!
AB = OB OA = @ 1 A @ 0 A = @ 1 A
0
0
0
0 1 0 1 0
1
0
1
1
!
!
!
AC = OC OA = @ 0 A @ 0 A = @ 0 A
1
0
1
0
1 0
1 0 1
1
1
1
!
! @
A
@
A
@
1
0
1 A
AB BC =
=
0
1
1
0 1
p
p
1
2 + 12 + 12
1
3
1
Area of triangle ABC = 2 @ 1 A =
=
:
2
2
1

Scalar Triple Product

For three vectors

1
0
1
0
1
u1
v1
w1
u = @ u2 A ; v = @ v2 A and w = @ w2 A in R3 ;
u3
v3
w3

32

CHAPTER 2. VECTORS
the dot product u (v

w) is called the scalar triple product of vectors u; v and w.

The scalar triple product u (v

u (v

w) can be computed numerically as follows:

v2 v3
w2 w3

w) = u1

u2

v1 v3
w1 w3

v1 v2
w1 w2

+ u3

It can be veried that

u (v

w) = v (w

u) = w (u

v)
3

Theorem 2.3.15. (a) For three non-coplanar u, v and w in R , the absolute value ju (v w)j
of the scalar triple product is the volume of the parallelepiped which is a three-dimensional
gure formed (by six parallelograms) whose sides are the three given vectors.
(b) For general three vectors u; v and w, if the scalar triple product u (v w) = 0, we
may conclude that either at least one of the vectors u; v and w is a zero vector or the three
vectors are coplanar (they lie on the same plane).
Example 2.3.16. Find the volume of the parallelepiped formed by vectors u = (1; 2; 3),
v = ( 1; 1; 0) and w = (1; 2; 1).
Solution We compute the scalar triple product:
u (v

w) = 1
=1

1 0
2 1

1 0
+3
1 1

2( 1) + 3( 3) =

1 1
1 2

Thus the volume of the parallelepiped is 6 unit3 .

2.4
2.4.1

Lines and Planes

Lines

A line on a Cartesian plane may be determined by a point on the line and the gradient of
the line. In a space, line is uniquely determined by its direction vector and a point on
the line.
v

r0

r0+v

r0+2v

r0+3v

2.4. LINES AND PLANES

33

If a line ` is parallel to a vector v and passes through a point with position vector r0 ,
then the vector equation of ` is
` : r (t) = r0 +tv, t 2 R:
Example 2.4.1. If A; B and C have coordinates (1; 1; 0) ; (0; 1; 0) and (0; 0; 1) respectively.
Find a vector equation for the line that is parallel to BC and passes through A.
Solution

1
1
!
r0 = OA = @ 1 A
0

! B
v = BC = B
@

Therefore, the vector equation of ` is

1
C
C
A

0
B
B
@

1
0
C
C = @ 1 A:
A
1

r (t)= r0 +tv
0
0 1
1
B
@
1 A + tB
=
@
0
Equation of a line: Cartesian form

1
C
C
A

1
0
1
x0
v1
Suppose that a line ` passes through r0 = @ y0 A and is parallel to v = @ v2 A. If
z0
v3
(x; y; z) is a point on `; then
0 1 0
1 0
1
x
x0
v1
r = @ y A = @ y0 A +t @ v2 A , t 2 R.
z
z0
v3
Therefore,

Thus

1 0
1
x
x0 + tv1
@ y A = @ y0 + tv2 A :
z
z0 + tv3

(2.1)

x = x0 + tv1 ; y = y0 + tv2 ; z = z0 + tv3 :

Equation (2.1) is called the parametric equation of `:

34

CHAPTER 2. VECTORS
Suppose that v1 ; v2 ; v3 6= 0; we obtain the Cartesian Equation of ` :
x

x0
v1

y0
v2

z0
v3

Question: What happens if v1 = 0?

Example 2.4.2. If a line ` has equation
x

1=

y+1
z
= :
2
3

(i) Find a vector equation for `: (ii) Find the parametric equation for `:
Solution The Cartesian equation for ` :
x

1
1

( 1)
z 0
=
:
2
3

(i) The line ` is parallel to (1; 2; 3) and passes through (1; 1; 0) : Thus the a vector equation
for ` is
0
1 0 1
1
1
r = @ 1 A +t @ 2 A , t 2 R.
0
3
(ii) The parametric equation for ` :

x = 1 + t; y =

1 + 2t; z = 3t; t 2 R:

Angles between two lines

If `1 and `2 have direction vectors v1 and v2 respectively and is the acute angle between
v1 and v2 ; then
v1 v2
= cos 1
:
jjv1 jj jjv2 jj
p
Example 2.4.3. Find the acute angle between z-axis and the line ` : x = 1 t; y = 3 + 2t;
z = 5+t
Solution. ` and z-axis has direction vectors
0
1

respectively. Let

B
v1 = B
@

0 1
0
C
C and v2 = @ 0 A
A
1

be the acute angle between v1 and v2 : Then

= cos

v1 v2
= cos
jjv1 jj jjv2 jj

1
= or 60 :
(2) (1)
3

2.4. LINES AND PLANES

35

Distance from a point to a line

S

If ` is a passing through P line parallel to v,

S is point not on ` and M is the foot of
perpendicular of S to `: Then the
!
!
distance from S to `: SM = P S sin
!
!
jjP S vjj
= jjvjj = P S v
^ :

r0
O

Example 2.4.4. Find the distance from a point S(1; 3; 2) to the line ` : r = (0; 1; 2) +
t (1; 0; 1) ; t 2 R:

Solution. Let P denote

`; v = i + k (direction vector); and
0 the
1 point
0 (0;
1 1; 2)
0 on 1
1
0
1
!
angle between P S = @ 3 A @ 1 A = @ 2 A and `:
2
2
0
Then the distance from P to ` =

!
PS v
!
P S sin =
jvj
0
1
=

B
B
@

C
C
A

0
B
B
@

jjvjj

1
C
C
A

0
=

B
B
@

1
p

C
C
A

3
= p units.
2

be the

36

CHAPTER 2. VECTORS

2.4.2

Plane

A plane in a space is determined by a point and its "inclination". This inclination can be
specied by a vector n that is normal, or perpendicular, to the plane.

P(x, y, z)

P 0(x0,y 0,z 0 )
M

Suppose a plane M contains a point P0 = (x0 ; y0 ; z0 ) and a nonzero vector n = (a; b; c)

normal to the plane. If P = (x; y; z) is any other point lying on this plane, then
P0 P and n are perpendicular.
So, we have
!
n P0 P =0:
This is called the vector equation of the
0 1 0
a
x
@ b A @ y
c
z

which can be expanded to

a (x

x0 ) + b (y

plane. It follows that

1
x0
y0 A = 0
z0

y0 ) + c (z

z0 ) = 0

This is called
0 the1 scalar equation of the plane through P0 = (x0 ; y0 ; z0 ) with normal
a
@
b A : It can be simplied to
vector n =
c
ax + by + cz = d;

where d = ax0 + by0 + cz0 :

2.4. LINES AND PLANES

37

Example
0 2.4.5.
1 Find the scalar equation for the plane through P0 (1; 2; 3) and perpendicular
4
to n = @ 5 A :
6
Solution The required equation is
4 (x

1) + 5 (y

2) + 6 (z

3) = 0:

Simplifying, we have
4x + 5y + 6z = 32:
Example 2.4.6. Find the scalar equation of the plane passing through A (1; 0; 0) ; B (0; 1; 0)
and C (0; 0; 1) :
!
!
Solution We rst determine a vector normal to the plane. The vector AB and AC are
vectors parallel to the plane. Therefore their cross product is a vector normal to the plane.
!
!
Let n =AB AC:
0
1
0
1 0
1
1
1
B
C
C:
@
A
@
1
0 A=B
n=
@
A
0
1
The scalar equation of the plane is
1 (x

1) + 1 (y

0) + 1 (z

0) = 0;

or
x + y + z = 1:
Distance from a point to a plane
If P is a point of the plane with normal n, then the distance from any point S to the
!
plane is the length of the vector projection of P S to n; which is equal to
!
PS n
=
jjnjj
Example 2.4.7. Find the distance from the point S (1; 0; 1) to the plane x
Solution
A normal vector of the plane x
x

2y + z = 1 is n = (1; 2; 1), with knk =

2y + z = 1.
p

6.

We nd a point P on the given plane by nding (x; y; z) which satises the equation
2y + z = 1:
Let x = 0 and y = 0, we have z =

38

CHAPTER 2. VECTORS

P0

Thus, we may take P = (0; 0; 1).

!
^ which is
The required distance is given by P S n
((1; 0; 1)

1
1
(0; 0; 1)) p (1; 2; 1) = p :
6
6

Angles between two planes

The angle between two planes is dened to be the (acute) angle between their respective
normal vectors.
Example 2.4.8. Find the angles between the planes x

2y + 2z = 1 and 6x

4y + 3z = 7:

1
0
1
1
6
Solution. The vectors n1 = @ 2 A and n2 = @ 4 A are the normal vectors of the
2
3
respective planes.
If

is the (acute) angle between the planes, then cos =

= cos

n1 n2
= cos
jn1 j jn2 j

n1 n2
jjn1 jjjjn2 jj

j6 + 8 + 6j
p
= cos
1 + 4 + 4 36 + 16 + 9

: Therefore
:

Chapter 3
Matrices
A matrix is simply a rectangular array of numbers or other mathematical objects. Rectangular arrays of real numbers (or complex numbers) arise in many contexts and in sciences and
engineering as well as social sciences. Beside providing a neat representation of data from
which we can obtain further information, matrices have wide applications in this modern
generation.

3.1

Matrix Notation and Terminology

For positive integers m and n, an m n matrix A is a rectangular array of mn numbers

(real or complex numbers) arranged in m horizontal rows and n vertical columns:
0
1
a11 a12
a1j
a1n
B a21 a22
a2j
a2n C
B .
..
..
.. C
B .
C
.
.
. C
B .
A=B
C:
aij
ain C
B ai1 ai2
B .
C
..
..
@ ..
A
.
.
am1 am2
amj
amn
The (i; j)th entry (or simply ij-entry) is the term aij found in the ith row and jth column.
The ith row of A, where 1 i m, is
ai1 ai2
while the jth column, for 1

n, is

0
B
B
B
@

ain

a1j
a2j
..
.
amj

39

C
C
C:
A

40

CHAPTER 3. MATRICES
Notation and Terminology
1. Capital letters A; B; C; : : : are used to denote matrices, and lowercase letters to denote
numerical quantities. Some examples:
0
1
a b c
1 3 5
z1 z2 z3 z4
A=
;T = @ d e f A;Z =
9 6 3
y1 y2 y3 y4
x y z
Both square brackets or round brackets are used to enclose the array of entries.

2. The number m of rows and the number n of columns describe the size of a matrix.
We write it as m n, and read as m by n.
3. The matrix

is sometimes written as

B
B
A=B
@

a11
a21
..
.

a12
a22
..
.

a1n
a2n
..
.

am1 am2

amn

[aij ]m

C
C
C:
A

or simply [aij ] :

To refer to the (i; j)th-entry of the matrix A, we may use the notation Aij . So,
Aij = aij .
2

1
4
9
For A =
2

3
6
4

3
5
7
3 p0 5, we have A11 = 1; A21 = 9 and A34 =??.
2
8

4. Usually, we match the letter denoting a matrix with the letter denoting its entries. For
a matrix B, its ij-entry is bij .
5. When m = 1, the matrix has only one row,i.e.
A=

a1 a2 a3

an

We call this matrix a row matrix ( also known as row vector) .

6. When n = 1, the matrix has only one column,i.e.
2
3
b1
6 b2 7
6
7
6
7
B = 6 b3 7
6 .. 7
4 . 5
bm

We call such matrix a column matrix ( also known as column vector) .

Of course, for a row matrix, we may simplify the entry using only one index, i.e.
C = [c1 c2
cn ].

3.1. MATRIX NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY

41

7. The m n matrix with zeros as its entries is called the zero matrix and we denote
it by 0.
8. When m = n, we call A a square matrix of size n. (The rectangular array now looks
like a square.)
For an n

n square matrix
2

6
6
A=6
4

a11
a21
..
.

a12
a22
..
.

a1n
a2n
..
.

am1 am2

ann

7
7
7:
5

The entries a11 ; a22 ; a33 ; : : : ; ann are called the diagonal entries. They are on the
main diagonal of A.
9. The n n square matrix where all the entries along the diagonal from the top left to
the bottom right are 1, and 0 elsewhere, is called the identity matrix. It is often
denoted as In . E.g.,
0
1
1 0 0
1 0
I2 =
; I3 = @ 0 1 0 A :
0 1
0 0 1

10. The n n square matrix where all the o diagonal entries (i.e. entries below and above
the main diagonal) are 0 is called an diagonal matrix.
1
0
0
1
3 0 0 0
a 0 0
B 0 3 0 0 C
C
A=@ 0 e 0 A B=B
@ 0 0 0 0 A:
0 0 g
0 0 0

11. The n n square matrix where all the entries below the main diagonal are 0 is called
an upper triangular matrix.
1
0
0
1
1 3 5
0
a b c
B 0 3
2 9 C
C:
@
0 e f A B=B
A=
A
@ 0 0 0
0 0 g
0 0 0 0:8
In a similar way, a lower triangular matrix is a square matrix where all the entries
above the main diagonal are 0. E.g.
0
1
53 0
0
0 0
B 4 3
0
0 0 C
B
C
a 0
B
C:
0
0
C=
B = B 1=2 0
C
p
c d
@ 0
1 0:4
2 0 A
1
3
5
7 9

42

CHAPTER 3. MATRICES

12. Lastly, the term scalars refer to real numbers or complex numbers in discussing matrices (and vectors).
Denition 3.1.1. Two matrices are dened to be equal if they have the same size and
their corresponding entries are equal.
Matrices A and B are equal if they have the same size (same number of rows and same
number of columns) and Aij = Bij for all i and j. (Here, note that if the size of both matrix
is m n, then 1 i m and 1 j n.)
Example 3.1.2. Solve the following matrix equation for a; b; c and d.
a b
b+c
3d + c 2a 4d

8 1
7 6

[Solution] Note that both matrices are 2 by 2. For matrices to be equal, each corresponding entries must be equal. Therefore we have
a b
b+c
3d + c
2a 4d

=
=
=
=

8
1
7
6

Solving for a; b; c and d (Exercise), we obtain a = 5; b =

Let A be a 3

4 matrix whose (i; j)-th entry is dened by (A)ij = ( 1)i+j 2i + j. Then

2
3
3 0 5 2
6
7
6
7:
A=6
4
5
9

Example 3.1.3. Let B = [bij ] be a 3

Find B.

[Solution]

3; c = 4; d = 1.

8
i+j
>
>
<
0
3 matrix where bij =
j
>
>
:

6
B=6
4

0
0
0

7
7:
5

if i > j
if i = j
if i < j

3.2. ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS OF MATRICES

3.2

43

Arithmetic Operations of Matrices

We will study the arithmetic operations for matrices.

3.2.1

Addition & Subtraction

Denition 3.2.1. If A and B are two m

n matrices, then

(a) the addition (or sum) A + B is the matrix obtained by adding entries in the same
positions, i.e.,
(A + B)ij = (A)ij + (B)ij :
(b) the di erence A B is the matrix obtained by subtracting entries of B from the
corresponding entries of B, i.e.,
(A

B)ij = (A)ij

(B)ij :

WARNING Matrices of dierent sizes cannot be added or subtracted.

Example 3.2.2.
Let A =

1 2 3
4 5 6

and B =

A+B =

3.2.2

B=

7 8 9
10 11 12

. Then

1+7 2+8 3+9

4 + 10 5 + 11 6 + 12

1 7 2 8 3 9
4 10 5 11 6 12

8 10 12
14 16 18

6
6

6
6

6
6

Scalar Multiplication.

Here, by a scalar, we refer to a real number or a complex number.

Denition 3.2.3. If is a scalar and A is an m n matrix, then the scalar multiple
A is the m n matrix obtained by multiplying each entry of A by , i.e.,
( A)ij = (A)ij :
Example 3.2.4.
Let A =
2A =

1 3 5
7 9 11
2 6 10
14 18 22

. Then
; ( 3)A =

3
21

9
27

15
33

; and

1
A=
3

1
3
7
3

1
3

5
3
11
3

44

CHAPTER 3. MATRICES

Note that for m n matrices A and B , the dierence A

practice to denote ( 1)B by B.
Example 3.2.5.

Let A =

4 3 2
1 3 1

Then
2A

,B=

1
B+ C=
3

7 2
5 3

B = A + ( 1)B. It is common
0
1

and C =

3
3

6 9
0 12

2 2 7
8 3 7

.
For matrices, when we perform arithmetic operations like addition, dierence and scalar
multiplication, we are basically performing similar arithmetic operations sum, dierence and
multiplication on numbers on entry-level. Thus, we would expect properties such as associativity, commutativity and distributive to hold for such matrix operations.
Theorem 3.2.6. Assuming the sizes of matrices are such that the indicated operations can
be performed, the following rules of matrix arithmetic are valid.
1. A + B = B + A (Commutative Law for addition)
2. (A + B) + C = A + (B + C) (Associative Law for addition)
3. A + 0 = 0 + A = A (Additive Identity)
4. A + ( A) = 0 (Additive Inverse)
5. 0
6.
7. (
8.

A=
(A

B) = A

)A = A

( A) = (

)A

3.2. ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS OF MATRICES

3.2.3

45

Matrix Multiplication.

Can we multiply two matrices in the similar way i.e. by multiplying corresponding entries
like what we have done for addition, subtraction or scalar multiplication?
It turns out that such a denition is not very helpful for most problems. Experience has
led mathematicians to the following more useful denition of matrix multiplication.
Denition 3.2.7. If A is an m r matrix and B is an r n matrix, then the matrix product
(or simply the product) AB is the m n matrix whose (i; j)th entry is determined by
(AB)ij = Ai1 B1j + Ai2 B2j +

+ Air Brj =

r
X

Aik Bkj :

k=1

Note that the (i; j)th entry of AB is the value obtained by taking the dot product of the
vector formed by the ith row of A and that formed by the jth column of B.
0

A11
A21
..
.

A12
A22
..
.

A1r
A2r
..
.

B
B
B
B
AB = B
B Ai1 Ai2
B .
..
@ ..
.
Am1 Am2

Air
..
.
Amr

0
C B11 B12
C
C B B21 B22
CB
C B ..
..
C@ .
.
C
A Br1 Br2

B1j
B2j
..
.
Brj

1
B1n
B2n C
C
C:
A
Brn

Example 3.2.8.
0

1
2
1 2
1
(a) Let A =
and B = @ 4 A. Note that A is 2
3 1
4
2
3 1, the product AB will be a 2 1 matrix.
To nd the entries of AB:
(1; 1)-th entry:
(2; 1)-th entry:
(3; 1)-th entry:
Thus, we have AB =

4
.
6

3 matrix and B is

46

CHAPTER 3. MATRICES

(b) Let A =

1 2
3 1

Note that A is 2

(c) Let A =

1 2
3 1

1
3
B 0 C
C
and C = B
@ 2 A.
p
3

1
4

3 matrix and C is 4 1, the product AC is not dened.

0
1
2 0
1
and D = @ 4 5 A.
4
2 1

Find AD and DA. Is AA dened?

[Solution]
AD =

4
6

; DA = @

1
2
16 A :

Remark
1. Matrix multiplication is not commutative.
2. It is not true that if AB = 0, then A = 0 or B = 0. (Exercise: Find two non-zero
2 2 matrices A and B with AB = 0.)
Without computing the entire product, we may compute a particular row or column of
a matrix product AB as follows:
Proposition 3.2.9 (Optional). Let A and B be m

r and r

n matrices respectively. Then

(a) the jth column of (AB) is the matrix product of A and the jth column of B;
jth column of (AB) = A[jth column of B]:
(b) the ith row of (AB) is the matrix product of the ith row of A and the matrix B;
ith row of (AB) = [ith row of A]B:

Example 3.2.10.

Let A =

4 3 2
1 3 1

,B=@

1
2
0

0
1
3

1
1
0 A.
2

Find (a) the 2nd column of AB and (b) the last row of AB.

3.3. TRANSPOSE

47

Identity Matrix
Recall that the identity matrix In is the square matrix In of size n with (i; j)th-entry
1
0

(In )ij =
Thus,
1

I1 =

1 0
0 1

; I2 =

if i = j;
if i =
6 j
0

1
1 0 0
; I3 = @ 0 1 0 A ; : : :
0 0 1

The role of identity matrices in matrix multiplication is like the number 1 in usual
multiplication. Some algebraic properties on matrix multiplication are recorded in the next
theorem.
Theorem 3.2.11. Assuming the sizes of matrices are such that the indicated operations can
be performed, the following rules of matrix arithmetic are valid.
1. AIn = A and Im A = A if A is m

n. (Identity)

2. (AB)C = A(BC) (Associative Law for multiplication);

3. A(B + C) = AB + AC (Left distributive law)
4. (A + B)C = AC + BC; (Right distributive law)
5. A0 = 0; 0A = 0

3.3

Transpose

Denition 3.3.1. For an m n matrix A, the matrix AT obtained by interchanging the

rows and columns of A is called the transpose of A. Thus, the (i; j)th-entry of AT is

Example 3.3.2.

Let A =

4 3 2
1 3 1
0

(AT )ij = (A)ji

0
and B = @

1
0
4 1
1
T
T
@
A
@
3 3 ;B =
0
A =
2 1
1

1
1
0 A. Then
2
1

1
2
0

0
1
3

2
1
0

0
3 A
2

48

CHAPTER 3. MATRICES

Proposition 3.3.3. If the sizes of the matrices are such that the stated operations can be
performed, then
(a) (AT )T = A
B)T = AT

(b) (A

BT

(c) ( A)T = (AT ), where

is a scalar.

(d) (AB)T = B T AT
Proof. (Exercise. )

3.4

Matrix Inverse

In this section, we shall discuss matrix invertibility with respect to matrix multiplication.
We shall discuss uniqueness, properties of matrix inverses, nding inverses.

3.4.1

Invertible Matrices

Denition 3.4.1. Let A be a n n square matrix. If there is another square matrix B

such that AB = In and BA = In , then A is said to be invertible (or non-singular), and
B is called an inverse of A. If no such matrix B can be found, then A is said to be not
invertible (or singular).
1
3

Example 3.4.2. Let A =

2
5

and B =

5
3

2
1

Note that AB = I2 and BA = I2 (Verify these as an exercise).

Since AB = I2 and BA = I2 , we conclude that A is invertible, by denition.
0

1
0 0 0
Example 3.4.3. Let C = @ a b c A. Is there a matrix D such that CD = I?
d e f
Solution

1
a b c
Example 3.4.4. Let E = @ 2a 2b 2c A. Is there a matrix F such that EF = I?
d e f

3.4. MATRIX INVERSE

49

Solution

Note that matrix invertibility is dened for square matrices only. It is clear that zero
square matrices are singular. By Proposition 3.2.9, we deduce that the following are singular.
Proposition 3.4.5.
(a) A square matrix with a row (or a column) of zeros is singular.
(b) A square matrix with a row (or a column) which is a multiple of another row (or
column) is singular. In particular, a square matrix with identical rows (or columns) is
singular.
A row Ri is a linear combination of other rows Rj , where j 6= i, means that there are
scalars j s such that
X
Ri =
+ i 1 Ri 1 + i+1 Ri+1 +
j Rj = 1 R1 + 2 R2 +
n R2 n:
j6=i

Proposition 3.4.6. A square matrix in which a row (or a column) is a linear combination
of other rows (or columns) is singular.
0
1
a
b
c
B
d
e
f C
C.
Example 3.4.7. Consider G = B
@ 2a 5d
A
2b 5e& 2c 5f
Note that R3 = 2R1 + ( 5)R2 . The matrix G singular.

3.4.2

The inverse A

Now we prove that an invertible matrix cannot have more than one inverses. In other words,
if an inverse exists, it is unique.
b are both inverses of A, then B = B.
b
Proposition 3.4.8. If B and B
Proof. Note that

b = I&BA
b = I:
AB = I&BA = I; and AB

50

CHAPTER 3. MATRICES

The above proposition says that the inverse of an invertible matrix A is unique. In view
of this, we shall denote the inverse of A by A 1 . Thus, we have
1

AA

= I and A 1 A = I:

It follows immediately from the above equation and denition of matrix invertibility that
the inverse A 1 of a matrix A is invertible.
Proposition 3.4.9. If A is an invertible matrix, then the inverse A
A

3.4.3

is invertible and

= A:

Invertible 2 by 2 matrices

For a 2 2 matrix, there is a good characterization of invertibility Moreover, there is a nice

formula for its inverse when it is invertible. This is recorded in the following proposition.
a b
c d
is given by the formula

Proposition 3.4.10. The 2 2 matrix A =

In this case the inverse A
(3.1)

1
ad

d
c

bc

is invertible if and only if ad bc 6= 0.

b
a

Proof.
(=: Suppose ad

bc 6= 0. We verify (Exercise.) that the matrix equations are satised

1
ad

bc

d
c

b
a

A = I2 & A

1
ad

d
c

bc

b
a

= I2 :

By the denition of matrix invertibility, A is invertible and its inverse A

A

=): It remains to prove that if A =

1
ad

a b
c d

bc

d
c

b
a

bc 6= 0.

bc = 0, then the matrix A =

is not invertible.
Suppose ad

is

is invertible, then ad

We prove the contrapositive statement: If ad

bc = 0. We shall consider two cases : (a) a = 0 (b) a 6= 0.

a b
c d

3.4. MATRIX INVERSE

51

For the case (a) where a = 0, note that either b = 0 or c = 0. If b = 0, then A has a
row of zero and this it is not invertible. If c = 0, then the rst row and second row of
A are multiple of each other. Hence A is not invertible.
For The case (b) where a 6= 0, we have d = bca . This the second row of A is a scalar
multiple of the st row of A. ( ac of the rst row ) Thus, A is not invertible.
Therefore, if ad
ad bc 6= 0.

bc = 0, then A is not invertible. Equivalently, if A is invertible, then

Remark 3.4.11. The above result provides a useful characterization of invertible 2 2

a b
matrices. For a 2 2 matrix A =
, the value ad bc is called the determinant of
c d
A. The above result also provides a formula for the inverse A 1 if the matrix A is invertible.
Example 3.4.12. Determine whether each of the following 2
it is, nd its inverse.

(a) A =

5 3
7 9

(b) B =

8
6

(c) C =

cos
sin

2 matrices is invertible. If

4
3

sin
cos

Remark 3.4.13.
(a) For matrices of other sizes, there is similar result on invertibility via determinant
which will be discussed in latter section. There is also a formula for the inverse of an
invertible matrix. However, the formula is more complicated than the case for 2 2
matrices.
(b) We may use Gaussian method to determine whether a square matrix is invertible and
also to nd its inverse. This will be dealt with in another mathematics Course.
However, for a diagonal matrix, there is an easy way to determine its invertibility and
its inverse.

52

CHAPTER 3. MATRICES

Example 3.4.14. Find the inverse of the following diagonal matrix, if abcd 6= 0.
0
1
a 0 0 0
B 0 b 0 0 C
B
C
@ 0 0 c 0 A
0 0 0 d
More generally, we have the following result for diagonal matrices.
Proposition 3.4.15. Suppose A = [aij ] is a diagonal matrix. Then A is invertible if and
only of its diagonal entries are non-zero, i.e., aii 6= 0 for every i. When A is invertible, A 1
1
is a diagonal matrix whose ith diagonal entry is
for each i.
aii
Proposition 3.4.16 (Optional). Suppose A a triangular matrix. Then A is invertible if
and only if all diagonal entries are non zero. Moreover, the inverse of invertible upper (resp.
lower) triangular matrix will be an upper (resp. lower) triangular matrix.
(The inverse of a general invertible triangular matrix is quite messy to include here.)
Now, we study some properties of invertible matrices.
Proposition 3.4.17. Let A be an invertible matrix. Then we have
1. AB = AC =) B = C and
2. BA = CA =) B = C.
Proposition 3.4.18. Let A and B be invertible matrices. Then the matrix product AB is
invertible and
(AB) 1 = B 1 A 1 :
Proposition 3.4.19. Suppose A is invertible.
(a) Then its transpose AT is invertible. In this case,
AT

= A

1 T

(b) For any nonzero scalar , the matrix A is invertible and

( A)

A 1:

3.5. POWER

3.5

53

Power

Denition 3.5.1. Let A be a square matrix. We dene the nonnegative integer powers of
A to be
A0 = I An = AA
| {z A}(n > 0):

Moreover, if A is invertible, then we dene the negative integer powers to be

A

= A

Parallel to real numbers, we have

1 n

1
1
=A
| A {z

A }1 (n > 0)

Ar As = Ar+s ; (Ar )s = Ars :

Example 3.5.2. Let A =

1 1
0 1

. Find A2 ; A3 ; A4 ; A 2 ; A 3 .

Solution

We also have the following laws of exponents.

Proposition 3.5.3. Let n be an integer. If A be an invertible matrix, then An is invertible
and
n
(An ) 1 = A 1 :

3.6

Determinants

Determinants via Cofactor Expansion

Recall that a 2

2 matrix A =

a b
c d

is invertible if and only if ad

bc 6= 0. This

a b
.
c d
It is denoted by the symbol det(A). The determinant is a function dened on square matrices.
For a general n n square matrix A, where n 3, we shall compute the det(A) inductively
via Cofactor Expansion.
special number ad bc is known as the determinant of the 2 2 square matrix A =

54

CHAPTER 3. MATRICES

3.6.1

Cofactors

Denition 3.6.1. Suppose A is an n

n matrix.

(1) The (i; j)-minor of A is dened to be the determinant of the submatrix that remains
after the ith-row and the jth-column are deleted from A. It is denoted by Mij .
(2) The (i; j)-cofactor of A is the number ( 1)i+j Mij . It is denoted by Cij .

Let Mij be the determinant of the submatrix that remains after the ith-row and the jthcolumn are deleted from A.
The (i; j)th cofactor of A is the number ( 1)i+j Mij . It is denoted by Cij .
Note The value Mij is called (i; j)th minor of A.
Example 3.6.2. Consider the matrix
2

A=4

3
1 5 0
3 2 1 5
1 2 1

(a) Find the (1; 1)th cofactor and (2; 3)th cofactor of A.
(b) Calculate C12 and C31 .
Solution

3.6. DETERMINANTS

55

Determinant & Cofactors

Cofactors are used in the evaluation of determinants in an inductive way. First we note
the determinants of matrices of sizes 1 1 and 2 2.
1. The determinant of a 1

1 matrix [a] is a, i.e. det([a]) = a.

2. The determinant of the 2

2 matrix A =

a b
c d

= ad

a b
c d

is ad

bc. We write it as

bc; or det(A) = ad

bc;

which can be obtained by computing the sum of the products on the rightward arrow
and subtracting the products in the leftward arrow.
To compute det(A), where A is n

n with n

3, we proceed as follows:

1. Select a row of A, say ith row.

2. Multiply each entry of the selected row by its cofactor, i.e., aik Cik .
3. Add all the resulting products obtained in the last step, i.e.,

n
X

aik Cik . This number

k=1

is det(A).
For an n

n matrix A, we have
det(A) = ai1 Ci1 + ai2 Ci2 +

ain Cin =

n
X

aij Cij

j=1

(cofactor expansion along the ith-row)

2

Example 3.6.3. Find the determinant of the matrix A = 4

pansion.

3
1 5 0
3 2 1 5 by cofactor ex1 2 1

[Solution] We evaluate the determinant of A along second row:

det(A) =

1 5 0
3 2 1
1 2 1

= ( 3)( 1)2+1

=
= 20:

5 0
1 0
1 5
+ (2)( 1)2+2
+ (1)( 1)2+3
2 1
1 1
1 2

56

CHAPTER 3. MATRICES
Note that using minors, we have

det(A) = ( 1)1+j a1j M1j + ( 1)2+j a2j M2j +

( 1)n+j anj Mnj = ( 1)j

n
X

( 1)i aij Mij ;

i=1

in which the sign of each consecutive terms alternates, with j being held at constant.
The "checkerboard matrix" S is a matrix with entries Sij = ( 1)i+j . The following are
examples of 3 by 3 and 4 by 4 checkerboard matrices.
3
2
2
3
+1
1 +1
1
+1
1 +1
6 1 +1
1 +1 7
7:
1 5 and S = 6
S = 4 1 +1
4 +1
1 +1
1 5
+1
1 +1
1 +1
1 +1
We may refer to the checkerboard matrix for the sign of ( 1)i+j when computing determinants.
For instance, if we compute determinant along third row, the checkerboard gives us the
signs f+; ; +g:

det(A) =
= 5

1 5 0
5 0
3 2 1 = (1)
2 1
1 2 1
2 + 17 = 20:

(2)

1 0
+ (1)
3 1

1 5
3 2

Determinant of via Cofactors along Column

Theorem 3.6.4. For a square matrix A, the determinants of A and its transpose AT are
the same, i.e., det(A) = det(AT ).
Therefore, instead of performing cofactor expansion along a selected row, we may also
evaluate the determinant of A by cofactor expansion along a selected column.

1. Select a column of A, say jth column. (So, we say that we perform cofactor expansion
along the jth-column.)
2. Multiply each entry akj of the selected row by its corresponding cofactor Ckj , i.e.,
akj Ckj .
3. Add all the resulting products obtained in the last step gives us the determinant of A,
i.e.,
n
X
det(A) = a1j C1j + a2j C2j +
+ anj Cnj =
akj Ckj :
k=1

3.6. DETERMINANTS

57

(cofactor expansion along the jth-column)

Example 3.6.5. Compute determinant using cofactor expansion along the second column.
det(A) =

1 5 0
3 2 1
1 2 1

Solution Referring to the checkerboard, which gives us the signs f ; +; g along the second
column:
1
3
det(A) =
1
= ( 5)(
Determinant of 3

5 0
3 1
1 0
2 1 = 5
+2
1 1
1 1
2 1
4) + (2)(1) 2(1) = 20:

3 matrices

The determinant of the 3

det(A) = a11 a22 a33

1
a11 a12 a13
3 matrix A = @ a21 a22 a23 A is
a31 a32 a33

a11 a23 a32

1 0
3 1

a12 a21 a33 + a12 a23 a31 + a13 a21 a32

a13 a22 a31 :

Remark 3.6.6. An easy way to help us in computing the determinant of 3 3 matrix

(ONLY) is by recopying the rst and second columns next to the third column of A and
followed by computing the sum of the products on the rightward arrows and subtracting the
products in the leftward arrows.
2
3
a11 a12 a13
a11 a12
4 a21 a22 a23 5 a21 a22
a31 a32 a33
a31 a32
Example 3.6.7. Evaluate the determinant using the above method:

(a)

2 1
3 5
1 6

(Ans

65)

(b)

2 7
5 1
3 8

(Ans 0)

4
7
2
6
2
4

58

CHAPTER 3. MATRICES
2

6
Example 3.6.8. Find the determinant of the matrix B = 6
4

1
0
0
1

1
3
1
0

expansion.

5
2
2
0

3
0
1 7
7 by cofactor
1 5
1

(Ans 12).
In general, one strategy for evaluating a determinant by cofactor expansion is to expand
along a row or column having the largest number of zeros.

Example 3.6.9. Compute

(Ans

3.6.2

3
1
1
2

1
0
0
0

2
2
5
0

2
1
.
1
1

1).

Determinants of Special Matrices.

In this section, we discuss determinants of some types of matrices.

Proposition 3.6.10.
1. Suppose A is n
0.

n matrix which as a row of zero or a column of zeros. Then det(A) =

2. If A has two rows (or columns) such that one of which is a multiple of the other, then
det(A) = 0.
3. Suppose A is a triangular matrix. Then det(A) = product of diagonal entries of A. In
particular if A is a diagonal matrix, then det(A) = product of diagonal entries of A.
Example 3.6.11. The determinants of the following matrices are zero.
2
6
6
4

4
5
0
3

3
9 8 5
2 0 7 7
7;
0 0 0 5
1
4
2

2
6
6
4

3
9 8 5
2 0 7 7
7:
8 2 1 5
1
4
2

4
5
6
3

Example 3.6.12. Find the following determinants.

(a) det(In ) =

(b)

4
0
0
0

0
2
0
0

0 5
0 7
3 0
0 21

(c)

a
0
0
0

0
b
0
0

0
0
c
0

0
0
0
d

3.6. DETERMINANTS
Theorem 3.6.13. For two n

59
n matrices A and B,
det(AB) = det(A)det(B):

Proof. (Proof Omitted.)

Corollary 3.6.14. If A is an n

n invertible matrix, then det(A) 6= 0. Moreover,

det(A 1 ) =

Proof. From AA

1
:
det(A)

= I, we have
det(AA 1 ) = det(I); i.e. , det(A)det(A 1 ) = 1:

Since det(A) 6= 0, we have det(A 1 ) =

1
.
det(A)

60

CHAPTER 3. MATRICES

3.7

Adjoint of A (Optional)

In this section, we dene an adjoint of a square matrix A, and obtain an important result
relating A and its adjoint. From this result, we derive the equivalent statement for invertibility of a matrix A and nonzero determinant. It also gives a formula for the inverse of an
invertible matrix.
Denition 3.7.1. Let A be an n n matrix, and Cij be its (i; j)th cofactor. Then the matrix
2
3
C11 C12
C1n
6 C21 C22
C2n 7
6
7
6
7
6
7
6
7
6
7
4
5
Cn1 Cn2
Cnn
is called the matrix of cofactors from A.

Example 3.7.2. Find the cofactor matrix of 4

3
1 5 0
3 2 1 5
1 2 1

Solution
(a) C11 = ( 1)1+1

2 1
2 1

= 0; C12 = ( 1)1+2

3 1
1 1

= 4; C13 = ( 1)1+3

3 2
1 2

8:::
So we have
2

C=4
(b)

0
5
5

4
1
1

3
2
8
3 5 & adj(A) = 4
17

0
4
8

5
1
3

3
5
1 5:
17

3
20 0 0
Aadj(A) = 4 0 20 0 5 = 20 I:
0 0 20

Denition 3.7.3. Let A be an n n matrix, and Cij be the cofactor. The transpose of the
matrix of cofactors is called the adjoint of A and is denoted by adj(A).
That is,
(adj(A))ij = Cji :
2
3
1 5 0
Example 3.7.4. (a) Find the adjoint of A=4 3 2 1 5. (b) Evaluate A(adj (A)) :
1 2 1

3.8. CRAMERS RULE

61

The cofactor matrix

C=4

0
5
5

4
1
1
2

adj(A) = C T = 4
(b)

0
4
8

3
8
3 5
17
5
1
3

3
5
1 5:
17

3
20 0 0
Aadj(A) = 4 0 20 0 5 = 20 I:
0 0 20

We state following relationship between adjoint, determinant and inverse of a matrix.

Theorem 3.7.5. Let A be an n

n square matrix. Then

A adj(A) = det(A)I:

Proof. (Optional. A proof is included at the end of this chapter for students who are keen
to read.)
The next result follows from the above theorem.
Theorem 3.7.6. Let A be an n
det(A) 6= 0.

n square matrix. Then A is invertible if and only if

(Equivalently, the matrix A is singular if and only if det(A) = 0.)

If A is invertible, then
A

Example 3.7.7. Find the inverse of 4

3.8

1
adj(A):
det(A)
3
1 5 0
3 2 1 5 via adjoint.
1 2 1

Cramers Rule

A system of linear equations is a nite number of linear equations. For instance,

7x1
2x2 + 5x3 =
3x1 + x2
4x3 =

3
2

62

CHAPTER 3. MATRICES
which can be expressed as a matrix equation:
0
1
x1
7
2
5 @
x2 A =
3
1
1
x3

3
2

For a linear system Ax = b whose coe cient matrix A is invertible, there is a formula
for its solution. The formula is known as Cramers rule. It is useful for studying the
mathematical properties of a solution without the need for solving the system.
Example 3.8.1. The linear system
2u
v + w = 3
u + v
3w = 5
5u
4v + 9w = 4
is equivalent to

2
@ 1
5

1
1
4

10
1 0 1
1
u
3
3 A@ v A = @ 5 A:
9
w
4

Theorem 3.8.2 (Cramers Rule). If Ax = b is a system of n linear equations in n unknowns

such that det(A) 6= 0, then the system has a unique solution, namely
xj =
where

6
6
Aj = 6
4

a11 a12
a21 a22
..
..
.
.
an1 an2

det(Aj )
; j = 1; 2; : : : ; n
det(A)
a1j
a2j
..
.

b1 a1j+1
b2 a2j+1
..
..
.
.

anj

bn anj+1

3
a1n
a2n 7
7
7;
5
ann

the matrix obtained by replacing the entries in the jth column of A by the entries in the
matrix
2
3
b1
6 b2 7
6
7
b = 6 .. 7
4 . 5
bn
Example 3.8.3. For each of the following linear system, determine whether Cramers Rule
is applicable. If it is determine, use it to solve the linear system. If it is not, use other
method to solve the system.
(a)
7x1
2x2 = 3
3x1 + x2 = 5

3.8. CRAMERS RULE

63

(b)
2a + 4b = 3
3a + 6b = 5

(c)
2u
v + w = 3
u + v
3w = 5
5u
4v + 9w = 4

64

CHAPTER 3. MATRICES

3.9

Proofs (Optional)

To prove Theorem 3.7.5, we need some result on cofactors.

In the evaluation of the determinant of a matrix A,we select the ith row (or jth column)
of A and the ith row (or jth column) of its cofactor matrix, i.e.,
det(A) =

n
X

aik Cik :

k=1

What happens if we have selected two dierent rows, and compute the product of entries
(of a selected row) and cofactors from dierent row(the other selected row)? That is, when
i 6= j, what is the value of
n
X
aik Cjk ?
k=1

We shall see from the next example that the sum of such products will be zero.
2
3
a11 a12 a13
6 a21 a22 a23 7
7
Example 3.9.1. Consider the matrix 3 3 matrix A = 6
4 a31 a32 a33 5.
Consider cofactors of entries along second row:
C21 =

(a12 a33

a13 a32 ); C22 = a11 a33

a13 a31 ; C23 =

(a11 a32

a12 a31 )

and entries along rst row of A. Now, we compute

a11 C21 + a12 C22 + a13 C23 :
This is actually the determinant of the following matrix
2
3
a11 a12 a13
4 a11 a12 a13 5 ;
a31 a32 a33

whose determinant is zero.

Proposition 3.9.2. Let A be an n

n matrix. Suppose i 6= j. Then

n
X

aik Cjk = 0:

k=1

Proof. (Optional.) Suppose i 6= j. Let A0 be the matrix which has the same row as A except
the jth row. The jth row of A0 is the ith row of A. That is, A0 has two identical rows,
namely ith row and jth row.

3.9. PROOFS (OPTIONAL)

65

Then we have

n
X

aik Cjk = det(A0 ) = 0:

k=1

Proof. Proof of Theorem 3.7.5 (Optional.)

It follows from

6
6
6
6
Aadj(A) = 6
6
6
4

a11 a12
a21 a22
..
..
.
.
ai1 ai2
..
..
.
.
an1 an2

a1n
a2n
..
.

2
7 C11 C21
7
7 6 C12 C22
76
76
..
ain 7 4 ...
.
7
.. 5 C
C
1n
2n
.
ann

Cj1
Cj2
..
.

Cn1
Cn2
..
.

Cjn

Cnn

3
7
7
7
5

that the ij-th entry of the product Aadj(A) is

ai1 Cj1 + ai2 Cj2 +

+ ain Cjn

Case i = j: The ij-th entry of the product Aadj(A) is det(A).

Case i 6= j: The ij-th entry of the product Aadj(A) is 0, since the entries and cofactors
come from dierent rows.
In conclusion, we have A adj(A) = det(A)I.
Proof of Cramers Rule
Proof. Since det(A) 6= 0, the matrix A is invertible and A

1
(A)adj(A).
det

Thus, the unique solution of Ax = b is given by

x=
Hence, we have xj =

1
(A)(jth-row
det

1
(A)adj(A)b:
det
of adj(A))b.

One can verify that (jth-row of adj(A))b is the

2
a11 a12
a1j 1 b1
6 a21 a22
a2j 1 b2
6
6 ..
.
..
..
..
Aj = 6 .
.
.
6
4 an1 an2
anj 1 bn

determinant of Aj where
3
a1j+1
a1n
7
a2j+1
a2n
7
..
.. 7 ;
.
. 7
7
5
anj+1
ann

66

CHAPTER 3. MATRICES

the matrix obtained by replacing the entries in the jth column of A by the entries in the
matrix
2
3
b1
6 b2 7
6
7
b = 6 .. 7 :
4 . 5
bn