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abstract
Article history:
Simulation is commonly used to develop control and diagnostic algorithms. Because vapor
compression cycles are essentially heat management devices, transient and steady-state
heat exchanger performance must be predicted accurately. However, for hardware- and
19 December 2007
was created. Accuracy concerns are addressed by including finned surfaces, nonlinear
air temperature distributions, and non-circular passages. In its current form, the model
Keywords:
is applicable to single pass, cross-flow heat exchangers. The mathematical basis of the
Refrigeration system
model is given and shown to be consistent with integral forms of the energy and continuity
Compression system
Modelling
models, moving-boundary models become singular and fail under certain conditions. To
Heat exchanger
address this shortcoming, particular attention was focused on algorithms for switching be-
Transient state
Research
flow regimes is demonstrated through simulation test cases, and model application to
a chiller system is shown. As such, the model provides improved accuracy, robustness,
and operating range while maintaining real-time capability.
2008 Elsevier Ltd and IIR. All rights reserved.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 1 217 244 9993; fax: 1 217 244 6534.
E-mail addresses: tmckinl2@uiuc.edu (T.L. McKinley), alleyne@uiuc.edu (A.G. Alleyne).
1
Tel.: 1 812 372 5506.
0140-7007/$ see front matter 2008 Elsevier Ltd and IIR. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2008.01.012
1254
Nomenclature
a0 , a1 , a2 empirical constants in the void fraction correlation
[dimensionless]
refrigerant cross-sectional flow area [m2]
ACR
air-to-structure surface area [m2]
ASA
refrigerant-to-structure surface area [m2]
ASR
air specific heat at constant pressure [J kg1 K1]
cPA
wall (structure) specific heat [J kg1 K1]
cW
fraction of air-to-structure surface area on fins
FFIN-A
[dimensionless]
fraction of refrigerant-to-structure surface area on
FFIN-R
fins [dimensionless]
refrigerant saturated liquid enthalpy (at pressure P)
hf
[J kg1]
refrigerant saturated vapor enthalpy (at pressure P)
hg
[J kg1]
average refrigerant enthalpy for zone j [J kg1]
hj
outlet refrigerant enthalpy from zone j [J kg1]
hj-OUT
inlet refrigerant enthalpy (boundary condition to
hR-IN
the model) [J kg1]
outlet refrigerant enthalpy from the heat
hR-OUT
exchanger [J kg1]
j
subscript for zone number (1 superheated,
2 two-phase, 3 sub-cooled)
gain in the enthalpy pseudo state equation,
Kh
currently set to five [s1]
gain in wall temperature pseudo state equation,
KT
currently set to five [s1]
gain in the mean void fraction pseudo state
Kg
equation, currently set to five [s1]
wall thermal conductivity [W m1 K1]
kW
refrigerant passage length [m]
LR
refrigerant mass for zone j [kg]
mj
_A
air mass flow rate (boundary condition to the
m
model) [kg s1]
_ R-IN
inlet refrigerant mass flow rate (boundary
m
condition to the model) [kg s1]
_
mR-OUT outlet refrigerant mass flow rate (boundary
condition to the model) [kg s1]
wall (structure) mass [kg]
mW
_ 12
refrigerant mass flow rate from zone 1 to zone 2
m
[kg s1]
_ 23
refrigerant mass flow rate from zone 2 to zone 3
m
[kg s1]
NTU
number of transfer units [dimensionless]
P
refrigerant pressure [Pa]
air-to-structure heat transfer rate for zone j [W]
Q_ Aj
Q_ Rj
structure (wall)-to-refrigerant heat transfer rate
for zone j [W]
inlet air temperature (boundary condition to the
TA-IN
model) [K]
1.
Introduction
TA-OUT j
TRj
TWj
TWTj
t
tW
URj
uj
Vj
_j
W
x
x0
x~
x~OUT
x_
aA
aRj
g
g
gTOT
hFA
hFRj
zj
zmin
dz
rf
rg
rj
n12
n23
mf
mg
certain design constraints must be met. For example, to prevent compressor failure, the refrigerant must enter as a superheated vapor and exit at acceptable discharge temperature.
Also, for system stability, the refrigerant must enter the
1255
To address these issues, this paper presents a new moving-boundary heat exchanger model for sub-critical vapor
compression cycles. For the sake of brevity, we present a version for condensers, although development of an analogous
one for evaporators is straightforward. Table 1 compares
this new formation with those in the literature. Accuracy
concerns of previous models are addressed by including
finned surfaces, nonlinear air temperature distributions,
and non-circular passages. In addition, robustness concerns
are met by dynamically switching between two- and threezone models as required. Despite additional complexity, the
model runs in real-time. Collectively, these changes are a significant step forward in accuracy, robustness, and operating
range of moving-boundary models.
2.
Modeling approach
h3
z1
z2
TW1
TW2
TW3
g
(1)
1256
Grald and
MacArthur
(1992)
He
et al. (1995)
Willatzen
et al. (1998)
Jensen and
Tummescheit
(2002)
Leducq
et al. (2003)
Bendapudi
(2004)
Rasmussen
(2006)
This
paper
YES
NO
NO
NO
NO
NO
NO
NO
NO
NO
NO
NO
YES
NO
NO
NO
NO
NO
NO
NO
NO
YES
YES
YES
NO
NO
NO
NO
YES
NO
NO
YES
NO
NO
NO
YES
NO
NO
NO
YES
NO
NOa
YES
NO
NO
YES
NO
YES
NO
YES
YES
YES
NO
YES
NO
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
NO
a Switching capability for the He model is described by Cheng and Asada (2006).
2.1.
mR-IN
1LR
z
hR-IN
QR1
Superheated
Zone
m12
TW1
QA1
h2g
QR2
Physical Parameters
2LR
TW2
Two-Phase
Zone
QA2
Inputs
mA
TA-IN
m23
P
x(0)
hR-OUT
mR-IN
mR-OUT
h2f
TA-OUTj
3LR
QR3
Sub-Cooled
Zone
Outputs
mR-OUT
hR-IN
Fig. 1 Mathematical model.
TW3
QA3
1257
dz1
dt
(8)
dz
dz1 dz2
v12 2
dt
dt
dt
(9)
TWT1 TW2
(10a)
If v12 0 :
TWT1 TW1
(10b)
where
NTU
(3)
The heat transfer rate from the air to the structure, for each
zone, can be calculated from
_ A zj cPA TA-IN TA-OUTj
(4)
Q_ Aj m
2.2.
cW mW
(11a)
If v23 0 :
(11b)
TWT2 TW2
1
tW
1
h
kW 1 FFIN-R aRj 1 FFIN-R 1 h
(6)
(7)
(13)
i
FRj
For a two-zone representation, the sub-cooled zone is inactive. In that case, Eq. (7) is replaced with the following pseudo
state equation:
KT TW2 TW3
dz1 dz2
dz
dz
dTW2
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
1 Q_ A3 Q_ R3
dz1 dz2
dTW3
TW3 TWT2
z3 cW mW
dt
dt
dt
dTW3
dt
(14)
2.3.
Governing equations: refrigerant
(three-zone representation)
The governing equations for the refrigerant are now given, assuming three-zones are present. Only the final forms of these
equations are given in this section, although details concerning their derivation are included in Appendix. For the superheated zone, the continuity and energy equations are as
follows:
_ 12
_ R-IN
dz1 z1 vr1 dP z1 vr1 dh1
m
m
dt r1 vP dt r1 vh1 dt
r1 ACR LR r1 ACR LR
(15)
_ R-IN hR-IN h1
hg h1
Q_ m
dh1 1 dP
_ 12 R1
m
r1 dt r1 ACR LR z1
r1 ACR LR z1
dt
(16)
1258
Also
h1
hR-IN hg
2
(17)
Differentiating
dh1 1 dhR-IN dhg
1 dhR-IN 1 vhg dP
2
2 dt
2 vP dt
dt
dt
dt
(18)
2 2
dt r2 vP dt r2 ACR LR r2 ACR LR r2 vg dt
hf h2
hg h2
vh2 1 dP
_
_ 12
m23
m
r2 ACR LR z2
vP r2 dt r2 ACR LR z2
Q_ R2
vh2 dg
vg dt r2 ACR LR z2
(19)
20
(21)
r3
dt
dt
vh3 dt
r3 ACR LR r3 ACR LR
(22)
hf h3
dh3
1 dP
_ 23
m
r3 dt
r3 ACR LR 1 z1 z2
dt
_ R-OUT hR-OUT h3
Q_ R3 m
r3 ACR LR 1 z1 z2
_ 12
_ R-OUT
dz1 z2 vr2 dP
z vr dg
m
m
2 2
dt r2 vP dt r2 ACR LR r2 vg dt
r2 ACR LR
hg h2
vh2 1 dP
vh dg
_ 12 2
m
vP r2 dt r2 ACR LR z2
vg dt
_ R-OUT h2-OUT h2
Q_ R2 m
r2 ACR LR z2
(24)
25
0
dt
dt
(26)
(27)
3.
Switching criteria
(28)
And also
23
In Eq. (22), the liquid-phase refrigerant was assumed to be incompressible. However, changes in density with enthalpy are
included, so the model accounts for thermal expansion. In Eq.
(23), the outlet enthalpy is equal to h3 when the outlet flow rate
is positive. When the outlet flow rate is negative, the enthalpy
is a boundary condition provided by the neighboring downstream component.
2.4.
Governing equations: refrigerant (two-zone
representation)
The governing equations for the two-zone representation are
now presented. Since the superheated zone is unaffected, Eqs.
<0
dt
dt
dt
(29)
These conditions can be stated as, The normalized subcooled zone length is nearly zero and continuing to decrease.
It was found that the three-zone representation could easily
handle normalized sub-cooled zone lengths of 0.01, but near
0.001 the linear equation solver used in the solution procedure
(see the following section) issued a warning message regarding matrix singularities. The switching threshold needed to
lie within this range, and as a starting point 0.005 was chosen.
Although the threshold is dependent on numerical precision
and solution algorithms, clearly 0.005 is small compared to total heat exchanger length.
Switching from two- to three-zone representation occurs
when
dz z2 gTOT g > zmin
(30)
1259
and also
dg
<0
dt
(31)
If mean void fraction is below the equilibrium value for complete condensation from saturated vapor to liquid, the term
inside parentheses in Eq. (30) will be positive. This means
there is excess liquid volume in the two-phase zone. The value
on the left-hand side of Eq. (30) is the normalized length of the
excess liquid volume. So, these conditions can be stated as,
The mean void fraction indicates there is noticeable excess
liquid volume inside the two-phase zone and it continues to
accumulate. As a starting point, the amount of excess liquid
which can be tolerated was chosen to be the same as the minimum value for switching from three-zone to two-zone
representations.
Eq. (30) explains why the three-zone representation allows
mean void fraction to evolve over time through Eq. (21). Originally, we simply used the equilibrium value. Eq. (30) shows
that this causes a jump in mean void fraction when switching
to a three-zone representation. This jump leads to the loss of
a corresponding amount of liquid refrigerant. By using Eq. (21),
we ensure mean void fraction is continuous and therefore
refrigerant mass is conserved. This is another unique feature
of our formulation.
Since refrigerant charge is an important parameter for vapor compression cycles, mass conservation is a very desirable
property. For the sake of robustness, we allow deactivated
zone lengths to stay near 0.005 and thereby prevent singularities when switching from a two-zone representation back to
a three-zone representation. However, since deactivated
zones do not contribute to the total heat transfer experienced
by the air or refrigerant, this is equivalent to reducing heat
transfer area. Although this introduces an error in the computed total heat transfer rate, it is no more than 0.5%. As discussed below, the expected accuracy of the code is 5%, so
this is not a significant contributor to total model error.
3
Zones?
YES
NO
Form Ay=B
(eqn (15),(16),(18)-(23))
Form Ay=B
(eqn (15),(16),(18),(24),(25))
Solve for y
(eqn (32))
Solve for y
(eqn (33))
Solve for:
(eqn (26), (27))
d 2
dt
dh3
dt
dTWj
Solve for:
(eqn (5)-(11), (14)) dt
dTWj
Solve for:
(eqn (5)-(11)) dt
4.
Solution procedure
rates, respectively. The heat transfer coefficient in the twophase zone is found empirically. Fin efficiencies are determined from well known equations (Incropera et al., 2007).
In turn, the wall-to-refrigerant heat transfer is calculated
from Eq. (12). Air-to-wall heat transfer is computed from
a Colburn modulusReynolds number correlation, fin efficiency equations, and Eqs. (2)(4).
For the three-zone representation, Eqs. (15), (16), and (18)
(23) form a set of eight linear equations (Ay B) in the vector:
y
dz1
dt
dz2
dt
dP dh3
dt dt
dh1
dt
dg
dt
T
_ 23
_ 12 m
m
(32)
1260
5.
Test case 2
Test case 3
Test case 4
Test case 5
Test case 6
Number of zones
Three
Three
Three
Two
Two
Two
BC waveform
Air mass flow rate
Inlet air temperature
Inlet ref mass flow rate
Outlet ref mass flow rate
Inlet ref enthalpy
Square
Constant
Constant
Constant
Constant
Constant
Constant
Square
Square
Constant
Constant
Constant
Constant
Constant
Sawtooth
Square
Constant
Constant
Constant
Constant
Constant
Constant
Square
Square
Constant
Constant
Constant
Constant
Constant
Sawtooth
Conservation checks
Refrigerant mass (kg)
Initial condition
Amplitude (model)
Amplitude (integral equation)
Error (% of initial condition)
0.09870
0.00000
0.00000
0.0004
0.09870
0.03000
0.03000
0.0000
0.09870
0.00000
0.00000
0.0030
0.02870
0.00001
0.00000
0.0254
0.02870
0.00600
0.00600
0.0002
0.02870
0.00000
0.00000
0.0096
11.5308
0.5832
0.5809
0.0201
11.5308
2.8281
2.8240
0.0354
11.5308
0.1185
0.1268
0.0719
5.2966
0.2555
0.2494
0.1164
5.2966
0.7645
0.7708
0.1186
5.2966
0.1374
0.1379
0.0104
218.0421
21.7485
21.8380
0.0410
218.0421
3.4757
3.4757
0.0000
218.0421
12.0449
12.1536
0.0499
221.6947
20.4739
20.5580
0.0379
221.6947
9.8552
9.8552
0.0000
221.6947
21.1603
21.1603
0.0000
229.5729
22.3311
22.4177
0.0377
229.5729
6.2648
6.2631
0.0007
229.5729
12.1611
12.1859
0.0108
226.9913
20.7288
20.8028
0.0326
226.9913
10.6196
10.6263
0.0029
226.9913
21.2936
21.2946
0.0005
1261
trace (see Fig. 4) shows that the model switched representations eight times. As expected for this periodic input, zone
length and refrigerant pressure also varied periodically.
Shortly after switching to a three-zone representation, zone
length transitions to 0.01, since excess liquid volume in the
two-phase zone is appended to the sub-cooled zone by the action of Eq. (21). A corresponding test case with the initial conditions in the two-zone rather than the three-zone regime
provided similar results.
7.
Model stability check
Model stability was checked by holding air and refrigerant inlet conditions constant, but varying refrigerant outlet flow rate
sinusoidally to force repeated switching. Boundary conditions, initial conditions, and physical parameters for this
test case are described in Table 3. The sub-cooled zone length
Cross-flow
Single, unmixed
Plate type
Air
R-134a
1.000
41
100
0.0468
1
0
0.060
70
1500
NA
0.060
0.006
Physical parameters
Air-side
Ref-side
Wall properties
Mass (kg)
Thickness (mm)
Specific heat (kJ kg1 C1)
Thermal conductivity (kW m1 C1)
2.679
1.149
Not reqd.
1.000
8.797E02
8.775E04
6.727
2.906
Offset strip fin (both sides)
0.854
0.659
0.102
4.763
5.51
1.143
0.152
0.953
9.45
3.175
3.835
0.406
0.875
0.173
Correlations
Single-phase heat transfer
correlation ()
Two-phase heat transfer
coefficient (kW m2 C1)
Void fraction correlation ()
a Fin length 1/2 passage height.
1600
0.08
1500
0.06
1400
0.04
1300
0.02
1200
0.00
10.53
50
100
150
200
Time (s)
250
Zivi (1964)
1100
300
Pressure (kPa)
6.
Sample application
1262
Ambient Air
Comp Speed
Valve Input
Chiller Outlet Temp
Receiver
Compressor
Exp
Valve
Liquid
13.0
1.0
12.5
0.8
12.0
0.6
11.5
0.4
11.0
0.2
10.5
0.0
20
40
100
10.0
120
Exp
Tank
Load
Fig. 5 Sample chilled water system schematic.
However, our switched model overcomes this obstacle, breaking the trade-off between accuracy and robustness.
8.
Conclusions
This paper describes an advanced, nonlinear, moving-boundary heat exchanger model for vapor compression cycles. It includes several improvements to model accuracy and stability,
Sub-Cooled Zone
Superheated Zone
0.40
0.35
Pump
80
Time (s)
Receiver
Chiller
60
Temperature (C)
Condenser
1.2
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
20
40
60
80
100
Time (s)
Fig. 7 Sample system zone length response to step
change in chiller load.
120
Appendix
In this section, more information is provided on the derivation
of the governing equations for the refrigerant and implementation of the mean void fraction correlation.
The governing equations for the refrigerant were derived
from a control volume analysis of each zone. This is detailed
below for the superheated zone, and an analogous approach
was taken for the two-phase and sub-cooled zones. The continuity equation is
_ 12
_ R-IN m
m
dm1
d
dr
dz
r1 ACR LR z1 ACR LR z1 1 r1 ACR LR 1
dt
dt
dt
dt
(34)
dt
vP dt vh1 dt
(35)
Substituting Eq. (35) into Eq. (34) and rearranging terms yields
Eq. (15).
Applying continuity to the two-phase zone yields an analogous expression to Eq. (34), but this time density is considered to be a function of pressure and mean void fraction. By
the chain rule:
dr2 vr2 dP vr2 dg
dt
vP dt vg dt
(36)
1263
Combining Eq. (36) with the equivalent of Eq. (34) yields Eqs.
(19) and (24).
Applying continuity to the sub-cooled zone results in an
analogous expression to Eq. (34). Density is a function of pressure and enthalpy, but the relationship to pressure is weak.
The chain rule becomes
dr3 vr3 dP vr3 dh3 vr3 dh3
y
dt
vP dt vh3 dt vh3 dt
(37)
(39)
(41)
dt
vP dt
vg dt
(42)
(44)
1264
(46)
(47)
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