CHAPTER

MECHANICS OF
MATERIALS
Ferdinand P. Beer
E. Russell Johnston, Jr.
John T. DeWolf

Stress and Strain

Axial Loading

MECHANICS OF MATERIALS

Beer Johnston DeWolf

Contents
Stress & Strain: Axial Loading
Normal Strain
Stress-Strain Test
Stress-Strain Diagram: Ductile Materials
Stress-Strain Diagram: Brittle Materials
Hookes Law: Modulus of Elasticity
Elastic vs. Plastic Behavior
Fatigue
Deformations Under Axial Loading
Example 2.01
Sample Problem 2.1
Static Indeterminacy
Example 2.04
Thermal Stresses
Poissons Ratio

Generalized Hookes Law

Dilatation: Bulk Modulus
Shearing Strain
Example 2.10
Relation Among E, n, and G
Sample Problem 2.5
Composite Materials
Saint-Venants Principle
Stress Concentration: Hole
Stress Concentration: Fillet
Example 2.12
Elastoplastic Materials
Plastic Deformations
Residual Stresses
Example 2.14, 2.15, 2.16
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Stress & Strain: Axial Loading

In Chap. 1 we analyzed the stresses created in various members and
connections by the loads applied to a structure or machine. We also learned to
design simple members and connections so that they would not fail under
specified loading conditions.
Another important aspect of the analysis and design of structures relates to the
deformations caused by the loads applied to a structure. Clearly, it is
important to avoid deformations so large that they may prevent the structure
from fulfilling the purpose for which it was intended. But the analysis of
deformations may also help us in the determination of stresses.
Indeed, it is not always possible to determine the forces in the members of a
structure by applying only the principles of statics. This is because statics is
based on the assumption of undeformable, rigid structures. By considering
engineering structures as deformable and analyzing the deformations in their
various members, it will be possible for us to compute forces that are
statically indeterminate,
Chapter 2 is concerned with deformation of a structural member under axial
loading. Later chapters will deal with torsional and pure bending loads.
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Normal Strain
We define the normal strain in a rod under axial loading as the
deformation per unit length of that rod.

2P P

2A A

P
A
2

2L L

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Stress-Strain Test

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Stress-Strain Diagram: Ductile Materials

Ductile materials, which comprise structural steel, as well as many alloys of other
metals, are characterized by their ability to yield at normal temperatures. As the
specimen is subjected to an increasing load, its length first increases linearly with the
load and at a very slow rate. Thus, the initial portion of the stress-strain diagram is a
straight line with a steep slope. However, after a critical value of the stress has been
reached i.e. the yield stress, the specimen undergoes a large deformation with a
relatively small increase in the applied load.

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Stress-Strain Diagram: Brittle Materials

Brittle materials, which comprise cast iron, glass, and stone, are characterized by the
fact that rupture occurs without any noticeable prior change in the rate of elongation.
Thus, for brittle materials, there is no difference between the ultimate strength and the
breaking strength. Also, the strain at the time of rupture is much smaller for brittle than
for ductile materials.

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Hookes Law: Modulus of Elasticity

Below the yield stress, This relation is

known as Hookes law

E
E Youngs M odulus or
M odulus of Elasticity

Strength is affected by alloying,

heat treating, and manufacturing
process but stiffness (Modulus of
Elasticity) is not.

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Elastic vs. Plastic Behavior

If the strain disappears when the
stress is removed, the material is
said to behave elastically.

The largest stress for which this

occurs is called the elastic limit.
When the strain does not return
to zero after the stress is
removed, the material is said to
behave plastically.

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Fatigue
Fatigue properties are shown on
S-N diagrams.

A member may fail due to fatigue

at stress levels significantly below
the ultimate strength if subjected
to many loading cycles.

When the stress is reduced below the endurance limit, fatigue failures do
not occur for any number of cycles. The endurance limit is the stress for
which failure does not occur, even for an indefinitely large number of
loading cycles. For a low-carbon steel, such as structural steel, the
endurance limit is about one-half of the ultimate strength of the steel.
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Deformations Under Axial Loading

From Hookes Law:

P
AE

From the definition of strain:

L
PL
AE

Equating and solving for the deformation,

This equation may be used only if the rod is

Homogeneous (constant E), has a uniform cross
section of area A, and is loaded at its ends.
With variations in loading, cross-section or
Material properties, we express the deformation of
the entire rod as:
PL
i i
i Ai Ei
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Example 2.01
SOLUTION:
Divide the rod into components at
the load application points.

E 29 106 psi
D 1.07 in. d 0.618 in.
Determine the deformation of
the steel rod shown under the
given loads.

Apply a free-body analysis on each

component to determine the
internal force

Evaluate the total of the component

deflections.

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SOLUTION:
Divide the rod into three
components:

Beer Johnston DeWolf

Apply free-body analysis to each

component to determine internal forces,
P1 60 103 lb
P2 15 103 lb
P3 30 103 lb

Evaluate total deflection,

Pi Li 1 P1L1 P2 L2 P3 L3

A
E
E
A
A
A
i i i
1
2
3

60 103 12 15 103 12 30 103 16

6
0.9
0.9
0.3
29 10

75.9 103 in.

L1 L2 12 in.

L3 16 in.

A1 A2 0.9 in 2

A3 0.3 in 2

75.9 103 in.

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Sample Problem 2.1

SOLUTION:

The rigid bar BDE is supported by two

links AB and CD.
Link AB is made of aluminum (E = 70
GPa) and has a cross-sectional area of 500
mm2. Link CD is made of steel (E = 200
GPa) and has a cross-sectional area of (600
mm2).

Apply a free-body analysis to the bar

BDE to find the forces exerted by
links AB and DC.
Evaluate the deformation of links AB
and DC or the displacements of B
and D.
Work out the geometry to find the
deflection at E given the deflections
at B and D.

For the 30-kN force shown, determine the

deflection a) of B, b) of D, and c) of E.
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Sample Problem 2.1

SOLUTION:
Free body: Bar BDE

Displacement of B:
B

PL
AE

60 103 N 0.3 m

50010-6 m2 70 109 Pa
514 10 6 m

MB 0
0 30 kN 0.6 m FCD 0.2 m
FCD 90 kN tension

MD 0
0 30 kN 0.4 m FAB 0.2 m
FAB 60 kN compression

B 0.514 mm

Displacement of D:
D

PL
AE

90 103 N 0.4 m

60010-6 m2 200109 Pa
300 10 6 m

D 0.300 mm
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Sample Problem 2.1

Displacement of D:
BB BH

DD HD
0.514 mm 200 mm x

0.300 mm
x
x 73.7 mm

EE HE

DD HD

E
0.300 mm

400 73.7 mm
73.7 mm

E 1.928 mm

E 1.928 mm

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Sample Problem 2.2

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Sample Problem 2.2

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Static Indeterminacy
Structures for which internal forces and
reactions cannot be determined from statics
alone are said to be statically
indeterminate.

A structure will be statically indeterminate

whenever it is held by more supports than
are required to maintain its equilibrium.
Redundant reactions are replaced with
unknown loads which along with the other
loads must produce compatible
deformations.

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Static Indeterminacy

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Static Indeterminacy

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Static Indeterminacy

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Static Indeterminacy

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Static Indeterminacy

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Thermal Stresses
A temperature change results in a change in length or
thermal strain. There is no stress associated with the
thermal strain unless the elongation is restrained by
the supports.
Treat the additional support as redundant and apply
the principle of superposition.
PL
T T L
P
AE
thermal expansion coef.
The thermal deformation and the deformation from
the redundant support must be compatible.

T P 0
T L

PL
0
AE

T P 0
P AE T

P
E T
A
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Poissons Ratio
For a slender bar subjected to axial loading:

x
E

y z 0

The elongation in the x-direction is

accompanied by a contraction in the other
directions. Assuming that the material is
isotropic (no directional dependence),

y z 0
Poissons ratio is defined as
y

lateral strain
n

z
axial strain
x
x

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Poissons Ratio
For a slender bar subjected to axial loading:

x
E

y z 0

The elongation in the x-direction is

accompanied by a contraction in the other
directions.

Poissons ratio is defined as

y

lateral strain
n

z
axial strain
x
x

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Shearing Strain
A cubic element subjected to a shear stress will
deform into a rhomboid. The corresponding shear
strain is quantified in terms of the change in angle
between the sides,

xy f xy

A plot of shear stress vs. shear strain is similar the

previous plots of normal stress vs. normal strain
except that the strength values are approximately
half. For small strains,

xy G xy yz G yz zx G zx
where G is the modulus of rigidity or shear modulus.

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Shearing Strain

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Shearing Strain

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Shearing Strain

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Example 2.10
SOLUTION:
Determine the average angular
deformation or shearing strain of
the block.

A rectangular block of material with

modulus of rigidity G = 90 ksi is
bonded to two rigid horizontal plates.
The lower plate is fixed, while the
upper plate is subjected to a horizontal
force P. Knowing that the upper plate
moves through 0.04 in. under the action
of the force, determine a) the average
shearing strain in the material, and b)
the force P exerted on the plate.

Apply Hookes law for shearing stress

and strain to find the corresponding
shearing stress.
Use the definition of shearing stress to
find the force P.

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Determine the average angular deformation

or shearing strain of the block.
xy tan xy

0.04 in.
2 in.

xy 0.020 rad

Apply Hookes law for shearing stress and

strain to find the corresponding shearing
stress.

xy G xy 90 103 psi 0.020 rad 1800psi

Use the definition of shearing stress to find

the force P.
P xy A 1800psi 8 in.2.5 in. 36 103 lb

P 36.0 kips

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