Natural number

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about positive integers and non-negative integers. For all the numbers , 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, ,
see Integer.

Natural numbers can be used for counting (one apple, two apples, three apples, )

Real numbers (R) include the rational (Q), which include the integers (Z), which include the natural numbers (N)

In mathematics, the natural numbers are those used for counting (as in "there are six coins on the table")
and ordering (as in "this is the third largest city in the country"). In common language, words used for counting
are "cardinal numbers" and words used for ordering are "ordinal numbers".
Some authors and ISO 31-11 begin the natural numbers with 0, corresponding to the non-negative integers 0,
1, 2, 3, , whereas others start with 1, corresponding to the positive integers1, 2, 3, .[1][2][3][4] Texts that
exclude zero from the natural numbers sometimes refer to the natural numbers together with zero as the whole
numbers, but in other writings, that term is used instead for the integers (including negative integers).
The natural numbers are the basis from which many other number sets may be built by extension: the integers,
by including an additive inverse (n) for each natural number n (and zero, if it is not there already, as its own
additive inverse); the rational numbers, by including a multiplicative inverse (1/n) for each nonzero integer n;
the real numbers by including with the rationals the (converging) Cauchy sequences of rationals; the complex
numbers, by including with the real numbers the unresolved square root of minus one; and so on.[5][6] These
chains of extensions make the natural numbers canonically embedded (identified) in the other number systems.
Properties of the natural numbers, such as divisibility and the distribution of prime numbers, are studied
in number theory. Problems concerning counting and ordering, such as partitioning and enumerations, are
studied in combinatorics.
In common language, for example in primary school, natural numbers may be called counting numbers[7] to
contrast the discreteness of counting to the continuity of measurement, established by the real numbers.
The natural numbers can, at times, appear as a convenient set of names (labels), that is, as
what linguists call nominal numbers, foregoing many or all of the properties of being a number in a mathematical
sense.
Contents
[hide]

1History
o 1.1Ancient roots
o 1.2Modern definitions

2Notation

4Generalizations

6See also

3Properties
o 3.1Addition
o 3.2Multiplication
o 3.3Relationship between addition and multiplication
o 3.4Order
o 3.5Division
o 3.6Algebraic properties satisfied by the natural numbers
5Formal definitions
o 5.1Peano axioms
o 5.2Constructions based on set theory
5.2.1von Neumann construction
5.2.2Other constructions
7Notes
8References
9External links

History[edit]
Ancient roots[edit]

The Ishango bone (on exhibition at the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences)[8][9][10] is believed to have been used 20,000
years ago for natural number arithmetic.

The most primitive method of representing a natural number is to put down a mark for each object. Later, a set of
objects could be tested for equality, excess or shortage, by striking out a mark and removing an object from the
set.
The first major advance in abstraction was the use of numerals to represent numbers. This allowed systems to be
developed for recording large numbers. The ancient Egyptians developed a powerful system of numerals with
distinct hieroglyphs for 1, 10, and all the powers of 10 up to over 1 million. A stone carving from Karnak, dating
from around 1500 BC and now at the Louvre in Paris, depicts 276 as 2 hundreds, 7 tens, and 6 ones; and
similarly for the number 4,622. The Babylonians had a place-value system based essentially on the numerals
for 1 and 10, using base sixty, so that the symbol for sixty was the same as the symbol for one, its value being
determined from context.[11]
A much later advance was the development of the idea that 0 can be considered as a number, with its own
numeral. The use of a 0 digit in place-value notation (within other numbers) dates back as early as 700 BC by the
Babylonians, but they omitted such a digit when it would have been the last symbol in the

number.[12] The Olmecand Maya civilizations used 0 as a separate number as early as the 1st century BC, but
this usage did not spread beyond Mesoamerica.[13][14] The use of a numeral 0 in modern times originated with
the Indian mathematician Brahmagupta in 628. However, 0 had been used as a number in the
medieval computus (the calculation of the date of Easter), beginning with Dionysius Exiguus in 525, without being
denoted by a numeral (standard Roman numerals do not have a symbol for 0); instead nulla (or the genitive
form nullae) from nullus, the Latin word for "none", was employed to denote a 0 value.[15]
The first systematic study of numbers as abstractions is usually credited to
the Greek philosophers Pythagorasand Archimedes. Some Greek mathematicians treated the number 1
differently than larger numbers, sometimes even not as a number at all.[16]
Independent studies also occurred at around the same time in India, China, and Mesoamerica.[17]

Modern definitions[edit]
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In 19th century Europe, there was mathematical and philosophical discussion about the exact nature of the
natural numbers. A school of Naturalism stated that the natural numbers were a direct consequence of the
human psyche. Henri Poincar was one of its advocates, as was Leopold Kroneckerwho summarized "God made
the integers, all else is the work of man".
In opposition to the Naturalists, the constructivists saw a need to improve the logical rigor in the foundations of
mathematics.[18] In the 1860s, Hermann Grassmann suggested a recursive definition for natural numbers thus
stating they were not really natural but a consequence of definitions. Later, two classes of such formal definitions
were constructed; later, they were shown to be equivalent in most practical applications.
Set-theoretical definitions of natural numbers were initiated by Frege and he initially defined a natural number as
the class of all sets that are in one-to-one correspondence with a particular set, but this definition turned out to
lead to paradoxes including Russell's paradox. Therefore, this formalism was modified so that a natural number
is defined as a particular set, and any set that can be put into one-to-one correspondence with that set is said to
have that number of elements.[19]
The second class of definitions was introduced by Giuseppe Peano and is now called Peano arithmetic. It is
based on an axiomatization of the properties of ordinal numbers: each natural number has a successor and every
non-zero natural number has a unique predecessor. Peano arithmetic is equiconsistent with several weak
systems of set theory. One such system is ZFC with the axiom of infinity replaced by its negation. Theorems that
can be proved in ZFC but cannot be proved using the Peano Axioms include Goodstein's theorem.[20]
With all these definitions it is convenient to include 0 (corresponding to the empty set) as a natural number.
Including 0 is now the common convention among set theorists[21] and logicians.[22] Other mathematicians also
include 0[4] although many have kept the older tradition and take 1 to be the first natural number.[23] Computer
scientists often start from zero when enumerating items like loop counters and string- or array- elements.[24][25]

Notation[edit]

The double-struck capital N symbol, often used to denote the set of all natural numbers (see List of mathematical symbols).

Mathematicians use N or (an N in blackboard bold) to refer to the set of all natural numbers. This set
is countably infinite: it is infinite but countable by definition. This is also expressed by saying that the cardinal
number of the set is aleph-naught 0.[26]
To be unambiguous about whether 0 is included or not, sometimes an index (or superscript) "0" is added in the
former case, and a superscript "*" or subscript "1" is added in the latter case:[citation needed]

0 = 0 = {0, 1, 2, }

* = + = 1 = >0 = {1, 2, }.

Properties[edit]
Addition[edit]
One can recursively define an addition on the natural numbers by
setting a + 0 = a and a + S(b) = S(a + b) for all a, b. Here S should
be read as "successor". This turns the natural numbers (, +) into
a commutative monoidwith identity element 0, the so-called free
object with one generator. This monoid satisfies the cancellation
property and can be embedded in a group(in the mathematical sense
of the word group). The smallest group containing the natural numbers
is the integers.
If 1 is defined as S(0), then b + 1 = b + S(0)
That is, b + 1 is simply the successor of b.

= S(b + 0) = S(b).

Multiplication[edit]
Analogously, given that addition has been defined, a multiplication
can be defined via a 0 = 0 and a S(b) = (a b) + a. This
turns (*, ) into a free commutative monoid with identity element 1;
a generator set for this monoid is the set of prime numbers.

Relationship between addition and

multiplication[edit]
Addition and multiplication are compatible, which is expressed in
the distribution law: a (b + c) = (a b) + (a c). These
properties of addition and multiplication make the natural numbers an
instance of a commutative semiring. Semirings are an algebraic
generalization of the natural numbers where multiplication is not
necessarily commutative. The lack of additive inverses, which is
equivalent to the fact that is not closed under subtraction, means
that is not a ring; instead it is a semiring (also known as a rig).
If the natural numbers are taken as "excluding 0", and "starting at 1",
the definitions of + and are as above, except that they begin
with a + 1 = S(a)and a 1 = a.

Order[edit]
In this section, juxtaposed variables such as ab indicate the
product a b, and the standard order of operations is assumed.
A total order on the natural numbers is defined by letting a b if and
only if there exists another natural number c with a + c = b. This
order is compatible with the arithmetical operations in the following
sense: if a, b and c are natural numbers and a b,
then a + c b + c and ac bc. An important property of the natural
numbers is that they are well-ordered: every non-empty set of natural
numbers has a least element. The rank among well-ordered sets is
expressed by an ordinal number; for the natural numbers this is
expressed as .

Division[edit]
In this section, juxtaposed variables such as ab indicate the
product a b, and the standard order of operations is assumed.
While it is in general not possible to divide one natural number by
another and get a natural number as result, the procedure
of division with remainder is available as a substitute: for any two
natural numbers a and b with b 0 there are natural
numbers q and r such that

a = bq + r and r < b.
The number q is called the quotient and r is called
the remainder of division of a by b. The numbers q and r are
uniquely determined by a and b. This Euclidean division is key to
several other properties (divisibility), algorithms (such as
the Euclidean algorithm), and ideas in number theory.

Algebraic properties satisfied by the natural

numbers[edit]
The addition (+) and multiplication () operations on natural
numbers as defined above have several algebraic properties:

Closure under addition and multiplication: for all natural

numbers a and b, both a + b and a b are natural
numbers.
Associativity: for all natural numbers a, b, and c, a + (b
= (a + b) + c and a (b c) = (a b) c.
Commutativity: for all natural
numbers a and b, a + b = b +

+ c)

a and a b = b a.

Existence of identity elements: for every natural

number a, a + 0 = a and a 1 = a.

Distributivity of multiplication over addition for all natural

numbers a, b, and c, a (b + c) = (a b) + (a c).

No nonzero zero divisors: if a and b are natural numbers

such that a b = 0, then a = 0 or b = 0.

Generalizations[edit]
Two generalizations of natural numbers arise from the two uses:

A natural number can be used to express the size of a finite

set; more generally a cardinal number is a measure for the
size of a set also suitable for infinite sets; this refers to a
concept of "size" such that if there is a bijection between two
sets they have the same size. The set of natural numbers
itself and any other countably infinite set
has cardinality aleph-null (0).

Linguistic ordinal numbers "first", "second", "third" can be

assigned to the elements of a totally ordered finite set, and
also to the elements of well-ordered countably infinite sets
like the set of natural numbers itself. This can be generalized
to ordinal numbers which describe the position of an element
in a well-ordered set in general. An ordinal number is also
used to describe the "size" of a well-ordered set, in a sense
different from cardinality: if there is an order
isomorphism between two well-ordered sets they have the
same ordinal number. The first ordinal number that is not a
natural number is expressed as ; this is also the ordinal
number of the set of natural numbers itself.

Many well-ordered sets with cardinal number 0 have an ordinal

number greater than (the latter is the lowest possible). The
least ordinal of cardinality 0 (i.e., the initial ordinal) is .
For finite well-ordered sets, there is one-to-one correspondence
between ordinal and cardinal numbers; therefore they can both
be expressed by the same natural number, the number of
elements of the set. This number can also be used to describe
the position of an element in a larger finite, or an
infinite, sequence.

A countable non-standard model of arithmetic satisfying the

Peano Arithmetic (i.e., the first-order Peano axioms) was
developed by Skolem in 1933. The hypernatural numbers are an
uncountable model that can be constructed from the ordinary
natural numbers via the ultrapower construction.
Georges Reeb used to claim provocatively that The nave
integers don't fill up . Other generalizations are discussed in the
article on numbers.

Formal definitions[edit]
Peano axioms[edit]
Main article: Peano axioms
Many properties of the natural numbers can be derived from
the Peano axioms.[27][28]

Axiom One: 0 is a natural number.

Axiom Two: Every natural number has a successor.
Axiom Three: 0 is not the successor of any natural number.
Axiom Four: If the successor of x equals the successor of y,
then x equals y.
Axiom Five (the axiom of induction): If a statement is true of
0, and if the truth of that statement for a number implies its
truth for the successor of that number, then the statement is
true for every natural number.

These are not the original axioms published by Peano, but are
named in his honor. Some forms of the Peano axioms have 1 in
place of 0. In ordinary arithmetic, the successor of x is x + 1.
Replacing Axiom Five by an axiom schema one obtains a
(weaker) first-order theory called Peano Arithmetic.

Constructions based on set theory[edit]

Main article: Set-theoretic definition of natural numbers
von Neumann construction[edit]
In the area of mathematics called set theory, a special case of
the von Neumann ordinal construction [29] defines the natural
numbers as follows:

Set 0

By the axiom of infinity, there exists a set which contains 0

and is closed under the successor function. Such sets are
said to be 'inductive'. The intersection of all such inductive
sets is defined to be the set of natural numbers. It can be
checked that the set of natural numbers satisfies the Peano
axioms.
It follows that each natural number is equal to the set of all
natural numbers less than it:

= { }, the empty set,

Define S(a) = a {a} for every set a. S(a) is the
successor of a, and S is called the successor function.

0 = { },
1 = 0 {0} = {0} = {{ }},
2 = 1 {1} = {0, 1} = {{ }, {{ }}},
3 = 2 {2} = {0, 1, 2} = {{ }, {{ }}, {{ }, {{ }}}},
n = n1 {n1} = {0, 1, , n1} = {{ }, {{ }}, , {{ },
{{ }}, }}, etc.

With this definition, a natural number n is a particular set

with n elements, and n m if and only if n is a subset of m.
Also, with this definition, different possible interpretations of
notations like n (n-tuples versus mappings of n into )
coincide.
Even if one does not accept the axiom of infinity and
therefore cannot accept that the set of all natural numbers
exists, it is still possible to define any one of these sets.
Other constructions[edit]
Although the standard construction is useful, it is not the only
possible construction. Zermelo's construction goes as
follows:

Set 0

={}
Define S(a) = {a},
It then follows that

0 = { },
1 = {0} = {{ }},
2 = {1} = {{{ }}},
n = {n1} = {{{}}}, etc.

Each natural number is then equal to the set of the natural number
preceding it.

See also[edit]

Mathematics portal

Integer
Set-theoretic definition of natural numbers
Peano axioms
Canonical representation of a positive integer
Countable set
Number#Classification for other number
systems (rational, real, complex etc.)

Notes[edit]
1.
2.

3.

4.

5.

Jump up^ Weisstein, Eric W. "Natural

Number". MathWorld.
Jump up^ "natural number", MerriamWebster.com, Merriam-Webster, retrieved 4
October 2014
Jump up^ Carothers (2000) says: " is the
set of natural numbers (positive integers)"
(p. 3)
^ Jump up to:a b Mac Lane & Birkhoff
(1999) include zero in the natural numbers:
'Intuitively, the set = {0, 1, 2, ...} of
all natural numbers may be described as
follows: contains an "initial" number 0; ...'.
They follow that with their version of the
Peano Postulates. (p. 15)
Jump up^ Mendelson (2008) says: "The
whole fantastic hierarchy of number
systems is built up by purely set-theoretic

6.
7.
8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.
20.

21.

22.

means from a few simple assumptions

about natural numbers." (Preface, p. x)
Jump up^ Bluman (2010): "Numbers make
up the foundation of mathematics." (p. 1)
Jump up^ Weisstein, Eric W. "Counting
Number". MathWorld.
Jump up^ Introduction, Royal Belgian
Institute of Natural Sciences, Brussels,
Belgium.
Jump up^ Flash presentation, Royal
Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences,
Brussels, Belgium.
Jump up^ The Ishango Bone, Democratic
Republic of the Congo, on permanent
display at the Royal Belgian Institute of
Natural Sciences, Brussels,
Belgium. UNESCO's Portal to the Heritage
of Astronomy
Jump up^ Georges Ifrah, The Universal
History of Numbers, Wiley, 2000, ISBN 0471-37568-3
Jump up^ "A history of Zero". MacTutor
History of Mathematics. Retrieved 2013-0123. a tablet found at Kish thought to
date from around 700 BC, uses three hooks
to denote an empty place in the positional
notation. Other tablets dated from around
the same time use a single hook for an
empty place
Jump up^ Mann, Charles C. (2005), 1491:
New Revelations Of The Americas Before
Columbus, Knopf,
p. 19, ISBN 9781400040063.
Jump up^ Evans, Brian (2014), "Chapter
10. Pre-Columbian Mathematics: The
Olmec, Maya, and Inca Civilizations", The
Development of Mathematics Throughout
the Centuries: A Brief History in a Cultural
Context, John Wiley &
Sons, ISBN 9781118853979.
Jump up^ Michael L. Gorodetsky (200308-25). "Cyclus Decemnovennalis Dionysii
Nineteen year cycle of Dionysius".
Hbar.phys.msu.ru. Retrieved 2012-02-13.
Jump up^ This convention is used, for
example, in Euclid's Elements, see Book
VII, definitions 1 and 2.
Jump up^ Morris Kline, Mathematical
Thought From Ancient to Modern Times,
Oxford University Press, 1990 [1972], ISBN
0-19-506135-7
Jump up^ "Much of the mathematical work
of the twentieth century has been devoted
to examining the logical foundations and
structure of the subject." (Eves 1990,
p. 606)
Jump up^ Eves 1990, Chapter 15
Jump up^ L. Kirby; J. Paris, Accessible
Independence Results for Peano
Arithmetic, Bulletin of the London
Mathematical Society 14 (4): 285.
doi:10.1112/blms/14.4.285, 1982.
Jump up^ Bagaria, Joan. "Set Theory".
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2014 Edition).
Jump up^ Goldrei, Derek (1998).
"3". Classic set theory : a guided
independent study (1. ed., 1. print ed.).

23.

24.

25.

26.
27.

28.

29.

Boca Raton, Fla. [u.a.]: Chapman &

Hall/CRC. p. 33. ISBN 0-412-60610-0.
Jump up^ This is common in texts
about Real analysis. See, for
example, Carothers (2000, p. 3)
or Thomson, Bruckner & Bruckner (2000,
p. 2).
Jump up^ Brown, Jim (1978). "In Defense
of Index Origin 0". ACM SIGAPL APL
Quote Quad. 9 (2): 7
7. doi:10.1145/586050.586053.
Retrieved 19 January 2015.
Jump up^ Hui, Roger. "Is Index Origin 0 a
Hindrance?". jsoftware.com. Retrieved 19
January 2015.
Jump up^ Weisstein, Eric W. "Cardinal
Number". MathWorld.
Jump up^ G.E. Mints (originator), "Peano
axioms", Encyclopedia of
Mathematics, Springer, in cooperation with
the European Mathematical Society,
retrieved 8 October 2014
Jump up^ Hamilton (1988) calls them
"Peano's Postulates" and begins with "1. 0
is a natural number." (p. 117f)
Halmos (1960) uses the language of set
theory instead of the language of arithmetic
for his five axioms. He begins with "(I) 0
(where, of course, 0 = " (is the set of
all natural numbers). (p. 46)
Morash (1991) gives "a two-part axiom" in
which the natural numbers begin with 1.
(Section 10.1: An Axiomatization for the
System of Positive Integers)
Jump up^ Von Neumann 1923

References[edit]

Bluman, Allan (2010), Pre-Algebra

DeMYSTiFieD (Second ed.), McGraw-Hill
Professional

Carothers, N.L. (2000), Real analysis,

Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-497566

Clapham, Christopher; Nicholson, James

(2014), The Concise Oxford Dictionary of
Mathematics (Fifth ed.), Oxford University Press

Dedekind, Richard (1963), Essays on the Theory

of Numbers, Dover, ISBN 0-486-21010-3

Dedekind, Richard (2007), Essays on the

Theory of Numbers, Kessinger Publishing,
LLC, ISBN 0-548-08985-X

Eves, Howard (1990), An Introduction to the

History of Mathematics (6th ed.),
Thomson, ISBN 978-0-03-029558-4

Halmos, Paul (1960), Naive Set Theory, Springer

Science & Business Media

Hamilton, A. G. (1988), Logic for

Mathematicians (Revised ed.), Cambridge
University Press

James, Robert C.; James, Glenn

(1992), Mathematics Dictionary (Fifth ed.),
Chapman & Hall

Landau, Edmund (1966), Foundations of

Analysis (Third ed.), Chelsea Pub Co, ISBN 08218-2693-X

Mac Lane, Saunders; Birkhoff,

Garrett (1999), Algebra (3rd ed.), American
Mathematical Society

Mendelson, Elliott (2008) [1973], Number

Systems and the Foundations of Analysis, Dover
Publications

Morash, Ronald P. (1991), Bridge to Abstract

Mathematics: Mathematical Proof and
Structures (Second ed.), Mcgraw-Hill College

Musser, Gary L.; Peterson, Blake E.; Burger,

William F. (2013), Mathematics for Elementary
Teachers: A Contemporary Approach (10th
ed.), Wiley Global Education, ISBN 9781118457443

Szczepanski, Amy F.; Kositsky, Andrew P.

(2008), The Complete Idiot's Guide to Prealgebra, Penguin Group

Thomson, Brian S.; Bruckner, Judith B.;

Bruckner, Andrew M. (2008), Elementary Real
Analysis (Second ed.),
ClassicalRealAnalysis.com, ISBN 97814348436
78

Von Neumann, Johann (1923), "Zur Einfhrung

der transfiniten Zahlen", Acta litterarum ac
scientiarum Ragiae Universitatis Hungaricae
Francisco-Josephinae, Sectio scientiarum
mathematicarum, 1: 199208

Von Neumann, John (January 2002) [1923],

"On the introduction of transfinite numbers",
in Jean van Heijenoort, From Frege to
Gdel: A Source Book in Mathematical
Logic, 1879-1931 (3rd ed.), Harvard
University Press, pp. 346354, ISBN 0-67432449-8 - English translation of von
Neumann 1923.

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