UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHEASTERN PHILIPPINES

Bo. Obrero, Davao City

College Of Engineering

WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS
Radio Equipment, Multiplexers, Antenna Towers and Waveguides,
Microwave Signal Propagation and Factors Affecting the Signal

Submitted by:
Alba, Emmanuel P.
Ramos, Honey Lynn D.
Ravida, Kim P.
Suralta, Enrico Vince C.

September 5, 2016

RADIO EQUIPMENT
Today, radio takes many forms, including wireless networks and mobile
communications of all types, as well as radio broadcasting. Before the advent
of television, commercial radio broadcasts included not only news and music, but
dramas, comedies, variety shows, and many other forms of entertainment (the era from
the late 1920s to the mid-1950s is commonly called radio's "Golden Age"). Radio was
unique among methods of dramatic presentation in that it used only sound.
For Navigation

Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)

o Determines the relative bearing from the aircraft to a
ground-based transmitter.
o Using two or more measurements from different
locations, the location of an unknown transmitter can be
determined;
alternately,
using
two
or
more
measurements of known transmitters, the location of a
vehicle can be determined. RDF is widely used as
a radio navigation system, especially with boats and aircraft.

Area Navigation (RNAV)

o Navigation from point to point. The
system will receive sensor inputs and
compute the best track between
points.
o RNAV can be defined as a method of
navigation that permits aircraft
operation on any desired course within the coverage of station-referenced
navigation signals or within the limits of a self-contained system capability, or a
combination of these.

ATC Transponder
o Used on aircraft to automatically respond to
ground based ATC secondary surveillance radar
interrogations.
o It provides altitude information, and surveillance
data to aid in the tracking of aircraft by air traffic
controllers. Surveillance data is also used
by ACAS to identify threat aircraft and co-ordinate
evasive manoeuvres.

Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)

o Used to determine the distance from a VORTAC, VORDME or localizer ground
station.
o Accurate to within half a mile or three percent, aircraft distance to the station is
typically displayed to the pilot and can be used in conjunction with
other DME distances or other navigation data to determine aircraft position
inRNAV systems.

Emergency Location Transmitter

o Used as an alerting and locating aid in an aircraft crash scenario.

Global Positioning System (GPS)

o
o

Sends several signals that are used to decode the position and distance of the
satellite.
Has better accuracy that any previous land-based system, is available at almost
all locations on the Earth, can be implemented in a few cents of modern
electronics, and requires only a few dozen satellites to provide worldwide
coverage.

Satellite Navigation or Satnav

o Uses satellites to provide autonomous geo-spatial positioning.
o It allows small electronic receivers to determine their location (longitude, latitude,
and altitude/elevation) to high precision (within a few metres) using time
signals transmitted along a line of sight by radio from satellites

For Multimedia

AM Radio
o uses amplitude modulation, in which the amplitude of the transmitted signal is
made proportional to the sound amplitude captured (transduced) by the
microphone, while the transmitted frequency remains unchanged

FM Broadcast Radio
o sends music and voice with less noise than AM radio.
o not subject to static and interference in the same way as AM signals

VHF (Very High Frequency) Communication

o Radio transmissions at frequencies between 118MHz and 137MHz are used for
short distance communications.
o VHF is less affected by atmospheric noise and interference from electrical
equipment that lower frequencies

Terrestrial Trunked Radio (TETRA)

o uses Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) with
four user channels on one radio carrier and
25 kHz spacing between carriers.
o Both point-to-point and point-to-multipoint
transfer can be used

Analog Television
o sends the picture as AM and the sound as AM or FM, with the sound carrier a
fixed frequency (4.5 MHz in the NTSC system) away from the video carrier
o uses a vestigial sideband on the video carrier to reduce the bandwidth required

Digital Television
o transmission of audio and video by digitally processed and multiplexed signal

can support more than one program in the same channel bandwidth

Other Uses

Weather Radar
o Capable of detecting precipitation via the reflection of
microwaves.
o Also capable of detecting the motion of rain droplets in
addition to the intensity of the precipitation

Microwave Ovens
o use intense radio waves to heat food
o This induces polar molecules in the food to rotate and produce thermal energy in
a process known as dielectric heating

Radio Remote Controls

o use radio waves to transmit control data to a remote object as in some early
forms of guided missile, some early TV remotes and a range of model
boats,cars and airplanes

MULTIPLEXERS
A multiplexer (or mux) is a device that selects one of
several analog or digital input signals and forwards the
selected input into a single line. Multiplexers are mainly used to
increase the amount of data that can be sent over
the network within a certain amount of time and bandwidth. A
multiplexer is also called a data selector. A device that
performs the multiplexing is called a multiplexer (MUX), and a
device that performs the reverse process is called a
demultiplexer (DEMUX or DMX)
Conversely, a demultiplexer (or demux) is a device taking
a single input signal and selecting one of many data-output-lines,
which is connected to the single input. A multiplexer is often used
with a complementary demultiplexer on the receiving end.
Multiplexing
a method by which multiple analog or digital signals are combined into one signal
over a shared medium
The aim is to share an expensive resource. For example, in telecommunications,
several telephone calls may be carried using one wire.
Steps:

1. The multiplexed signal is transmitted over a communication channel, such as a cable.

2. The multiplexing divides the capacity of the communication channel into several
logical channels, one for each message signal or data stream to be transferred
3. A reverse process, known as demultiplexing, extracts the original channels on the
receiver end.
Inverse multiplexing (IMUX) has the opposite aim as multiplexing, namely to break one
data stream into several streams, transfer them simultaneously over several communication
channels, and recreate the original data stream.

ANTENNA TOWERS
Antenna Towers are, typically, tall structures designed to support antennas (also known
as aerials) for telecommunications, and broadcasting, and television. They are among the tallest
man-made structures.
When it comes to antenna tower types, there are three officially recognized varieties.
These are mast, lattice, and pole systems. They are traditionally referred to as communication
towers design for the modern days cell and microwave antennas. The thing with these systems
is that theyre amazingly one of the largest structures made by man and they play a major role
in the way we communicate with each other. And aside from communication, they are used as
radio antenna towers, power systems, and many more.

Mast Tower
o The main advantage of mast is that the building, tower
manufacture and configuration are affordable and
minimal compared to the others, mainly because they
require small areas.
o This type of antenna tower is mostly square based and
vertical in orientation
o Masts are used to elevate equipment used for
communications or perhaps radiate an electronic signal
for the production of something called line of sight between receiving and
transmitting sites.
o Theres actually no official or uniform definition for a mast tower. As a matter of
fact, depending on the industry it is used, the terms tower and mast are
usually used interchangeably.

Lattice Tower

o
o

this type of antenna tower is difference in a way that it is

usually triangular, whereas the first one is square-based.
other varieties use the extended box configuration. For the
extended box configuration, there will be a wider base than
its top while the entirety of the structure will be built through
the creation of different sets of horizontal ladders or may
maybe internal triangular structures, all for the purpose of
securing the three or four base legs of the antenna tower.

Pole Towers
o became a lot more sophisticated and trendy the moment
construction materials that have better strength, flexibility,
and durability surfaced.
o allows more secured and safe towers overall.
o With the rise in popularity of urban cell as well as
microwave systems back in the 90s, builders essentially
thought of getting a more efficient and effective way to construct and use medium
height elevation systems. This led to the idea of pole configuration.
o

classified as free-standing towers usually fabricated using metal or concrete.

They can lift different medium weight components to as high as a hundred feet,
but of course with the support of wires

Design Features
Masts for HF/shortwave antennas
o For transmissions in the shortwave range, there is little to be gained by raising
the antenna more than a few wavelengths above ground level. Shortwave
transmitters rarely use masts taller than about 100 metres.

Access for Riggers

o Because towers require maintenance, access to the whole of the structure is
necessary. Small structures are typically accessed with a ladder
o Larger structures, which tend to require more frequent maintenance, may have
stairs and sometimes a lift, also called a service elevator

Aircraft Warning Features

o Tall structures in excess of certain legislated heights are often equipped
with aircraft warning lamps, usually red, to warn pilots of the structure's existence
o Structures over a certain height may also be required to be painted
with contrasting color schemes such as white and orange or white and red to
make them more visible against the sky

Light Pollution and Nuisance Lighting

o In some countries where light pollution is a concern, tower heights may be
restricted so as to reduce or eliminate the need for aircraft warning lights

Wind-induced Oscillations
o This is particularly a concern with steel tube construction
o One can reduce this by building cylindrical shock-mounts into the construction

Hazard to Birds
o Reports have been issued documenting known bird fatalities and calling for
research to find ways to minimize the hazard that communications towers can
pose to birds
o instances of rare birds nesting in cell towers and thereby preventing repair work
due to legislation intended to protect them

Other Special Structures

Mast Radiators
o A mast radiator is a radio tower or mast in which the whole structure works as an
antenna. It is used frequently as a transmitting antenna for long or medium wave
broadcasting.
o Structurally, the only difference is that a mast radiator may be supported on an
insulator at its base. In the case of a tower, there will be one insulator supporting
each leg.

Telescopic, Pump-up and Tiltover Towers

o Telescopic masts are used predominantly in setting up temporary radio links for
reporting on major news events, and for temporary communications in
emergencies
o They can save money by needing to withstand high winds only when raised, and
as such are widely used in amateur radio

Disguised Cell-sites
o 'hides' cellphone towers in, or as, trees, church towers, flag poles, water tanks
and other features
o These are generally called "stealth towers" or "stealth installations", or
simply concealed cell sites
Balloons and Kites
o It can carry an antenna or a wire (for VLF, LW or MW) up to an appropriate height
o Such an arrangement is used occasionally by military agencies or radio amateurs

Drones
o Recently (2013), there has been interest in using unmanned aerial
vehicles (drones) for telecom purposes.It is not clear what advantages a drone
would have over a balloon.

WAVEGUIDES

Waveguides are metal tubes functioning as conduits for carrying electromagnetic

waves. They are practical only for signals of extremely high frequency, where the signal
wavelength approaches the cross-sectional dimensions of the waveguide. Below such
frequencies, waveguides are useless as electrical transmission lines. The tube wall provides
distributed inductance, while the empty space between the tube walls provides distributed
capacitance.
Wave guides conduct microwave energy at lower loss than coaxial cables.
When functioning as transmission lines, though, waveguides are considerably simpler
than two-conductor cablesespecially coaxial cablesin their manufacture and maintenance.
With only a single conductor (the waveguides shell), there are no concerns with proper
conductor-to-conductor spacing, or of the consistency of the dielectric material, since the only
dielectric in a waveguide is air. Moisture is not as severe a problem in waveguides as it is within
coaxial cables, either, and so waveguides are often spared the necessity of gas filling.
Wave Propagation Categories
All electromagnetic waves consist of electric and magnetic fields propagating in the
same direction of travel, but perpendicular to each other. Along the length of a normal
transmission line, both electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular (transverse) to the
direction of wave travel. This is known as the principal mode, or TEM (Transverse Electric
and Magnetic) mode. This mode of wave propagation can exist only where there are two
conductors, and it is the dominant mode of wave propagation where the cross-sectional
dimensions of the transmission line are small compared to the wavelength of the signal.

Lines small enough in cross-sectional dimension to maintain TEM mode signal

propagation for microwave signals tend to have low voltage ratings, and suffer from large,
parasitic power losses due to conductor skin and dielectric effects. Fortunately, though, at
these short wavelengths there exist other modes of propagation that are not as lossy, if a
conductive tube is used rather than two parallel conductors. It is at these high frequencies that
waveguides become practical.

When an electromagnetic wave propagates down a hollow tube, only one of the fields
either electric or magneticwill actually be transverse to the waves direction of travel. The
other field will loop longitudinally to the direction of travel, but still be perpendicular to the other
field.

Transverse Electric (TE) Mode

Electric field is perpendicular to the direction of wave travel.

Transverse Magnetic (TM) Mode

Magnetic field is perpendicular to the direction of wave travel.

Coupling to Waveguides
Signals are typically introduced to and extracted from waveguides by means of small
antenna-like coupling devices inserted into the waveguide. Sometimes these coupling elements
take the form of a dipole, which is nothing more than two open-ended stub wires of appropriate
length. Other times, the coupler is a single stub (a half-dipole, similar in principle to a whip
antenna, 1/4 in physical length), or a short loop of wire terminated on the inside surface of the
waveguide.

Cavity Resonator
Just as transmission lines are able to function as resonant elements in a circuit,
especially when terminated by a short-circuit or an open-circuit, a dead-ended waveguide
may also resonate at particular frequencies. When used as such, the device is called a cavity
resonator. Inductive output tubes use toroid-shaped cavity resonators to maximize the power
transfer efficiency between the electron beam and the output cable.
A cavitys resonant frequency may be altered by changing its physical dimensions. To
this end, cavities with movable plates, screws, and other mechanical elements for tuning are
manufactured to provide coarse resonant frequency adjustment.
If a resonant cavity is made open on one end, it functions as a unidirectional antenna.
The following photograph shows a home-made waveguide formed from a tin can, used as an
antenna for a 2.4 GHz signal in an 802.11b computer communication network. The coupling
element is a quarter-wave stub: nothing more than a piece of solid copper wire about 1-1/4
inches in length extending from the center of a coaxial cable connector penetrating the side
of the can

MICROWAVE SIGNAL PROPAGATION

Microwave radios propagate signals through Earths atmosphere between transmitters
and receivers often located on towers spaced about 15 to 30 miles.
Advantages of Microwaves over Radio Waves

It can carry thousands of information without the need for physical facilities

More data can be sent through microwaves

Microwaves use smaller antennas
Smaller antennas produce a more focused beam which is difficult to intercept

Line of Sight Transmission

A direct signal path must exist between the transmit and receive antennas.

Microwave propagation in free space is governed by the law of optics. Like any optical waves,
microwaves undergo reflection and refraction.
Frensel Zone
The Fresnel zone is the area of space between the two antennas in which the radio
signal travels. For clear line of sight, Fresnel Zone should be clear of obstacles.
Repeaters
Repeaters receiver-transmitter tandem placed back to back. The repeater station
receives a signal, amplifies and reshapes it and retransmits to the next repeater or
terminal station.

Plane Reflectors
Microwave signals are reflected by flat surfaces. Plane reflectors may be used to bounce
a microwave signal around a hill or a building that would otherwise block its path.

Flat reflectors are often placed at the top of tall microwave-relay towers. Parabolic dish
antennas at ground level face skyward, directed toward the reflectors that bounce their signals
to the horizon.
A passive microwave reflector needs little maintenance and requires no power. Their
principle drawback is that the strength of the microwave signal drops off as the inverse fourth
power of the total distance when it has been reflected from a passive repeater, greatly
increasing the path loss.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE SIGNAL

Refraction in the earth's atmosphere, which alters the trajectory of radio waves, and
which can change with time.

Diffraction effects resulting from objects near the direct path.

Reflections from objects, which may be either near or far from the direct path.

1. Atmospheric Refraction
Under normal circumstances, the index of refraction decreases monotonically with
increasing height, which causes the radio waves emanating from the transmitter to bend
slightly downwards towards the earth's surface instead of following a straight line.

2. Ground Reflections
One common source of reflections is the ground. It should be kept in mind that the reflection
point is not at the midpoint of the path unless the antennas are at the same height and the
ground is not sloped in the reflection region.

3. Other Sources of Reflections

Much of what has been said about ground reflections applies to reflections from other
objects as well. The "ground reflection" on a particular path may be from a building rooftop
rather than the ground itself, but the effect is much the same.
4. Effects of Rain, Snow and Fog
The loss of LOS paths may sometimes be affected by weather conditions. Rain and fog
(clouds) become a significant source of attenuation only when we get well into the
microwave region. Attenuation from fog only becomes noticeable (i.e., attenuation of the
order of 1 dB or more) above about 30 GHz. Snow is in this category as well. Rain
attenuation becomes significant at around 10 GHz, where a heavy rainfall may cause
additional path loss of the order of 1 dB/km.
5. Attenuation from Trees and Forests
Trees can be a significant source of path loss, and there are a number of variables involved,
such as the specific type of tree, whether it is wet or dry, and in the case of deciduous trees,
whether the leaves are present or not.
6. Diffraction Losses
7. Interference From Other Frequencies
8. Equipment, Antenna, and Waveguide Failures