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of Negative
and
Positive
Attribute-Level
Performance
on
Overall
Satisfaction
and
Intentions
Repurchase
The
Asymmetric
Impact
The relationship between attribute-level performance, overall satisfaction, and repurchase intentions is of critical
importance to managers and generally has been conceptualized as linear and symmetric. The authors investigate
the asymmetric and nonlinear nature of the relationship among these constructs. Predictions are developed and
tested empirically using survey data from two different contexts: a service (health care, n = 4517) and a product
(automobile, n = 9359 and n = 13,759). Results show that (1) negative performance on an attribute has a greater
impact on overall satisfaction and repurchase intentions than positive performance has on that same attribute, and
(2) overall satisfaction displays diminishing sensitivity to attribute-level performance. Surprisingly, results show that
attribute performance has a direct impact on repurchase intentions in addition to its effect through satisfaction.
Consider the following scenarios:
?In an effortto increasecustomersatisfaction,an automotive
manufacturer
consistentlyhas increasedperformanceon
engine power.However,resultsshow that, after a while,
increasesin the ratingsfor performance
on enginepowerdo
not yield correspondingchanges in satisfactionratings.
Designerswonderif theyshouldkeepinvestingresourcesto
enhanceenginepower.
*A physicianhistoricallyhas receivedhigh performance
ratsuchas politeness,timeliness,reliabilityof
ingson attributes
service,andcorrectdiagnosis.Inthecurrentsurvey,shefinds
thatperformance
ratingson timelinessaredown,butareup
on all the otherattributes.However,she also findsa sharp
declinein heroverallsatisfaction
ratings.She is puzzledas to
on a singleattributeis not offset
why negativeperformance
on a hostof otherattributes.
by positiveperformance
These scenarios highlight typical dilemmas that managers face at customer-drivenorganizationswhere the goals
are to design productsand services with attributesthat maximize customer satisfaction.These goals generally are operationalized by multiple-regressionmodels that identify key
attributes into which managers should invest resources to
enhance overall satisfaction (e.g., Bolton and Drew 1991;
Hanson 1992; Wittink and Bayer 1994). The assumption
underlyingsuch "key driver"models is that there is a symVikasMittal
is a visiting
assistantprofessor,
Graduate
Schoolof
Kellogg
Northwestern
William
T.Ross,Jr.is anassociate
Management,
University.
Patrick
M.Baldasare
is President
andChief
professor,
Temple
University.
Executive
Officer
of TheResponseCenter,a division
of TeleSpectrum
Inc.Theauthors
thehelpful
comments
andsugWorldWide,
acknowledge
Oliva,D.Raghavarao,
gestionsof EugeneAnderson,
Terry
SoumyaRoy,
andfouranonymous
reviewers.
Theauthors
thankFrank
Mark
G.
Forkin,
andAlanRogersof Consumer
Attitude
Inc./Research
Konkel,
Research,
DataAnalysis,
Inc.forproviding
theautomotive
data,andJamesCuthrell,
Kristine
Michael
andE.Monsoon
fortheir
Gerhart,
Gupta,
JerryKatrichis,
support.
Journal of Marketing
Vol. 62 (January 1998), 33-47
metric and linear relationshipbetween attribute-levelperformanceand dependentconstructssuch as overall satisfaction and purchase intentions. However, what if, at the
attribute level, performance and satisfaction were linked
asymmetrically?The answer to this question is important
for academics and managersalike. Although academics (cf.
Anderson and Sullivan 1993; Oliva, Oliver, and Bearden
1995) and practitioners(cf. Coyne 1989) recognize that the
overall satisfactionfunction might not be linearand/orsymmetric, no such conclusion can be offered at the attribute
level. Yet,it is at the attributelevel thatmanagersmust make
decisions.
Therefore,our objective is to investigate-theoretically
and empirically-the existence and natureof the asymmetric and nonlinearresponse of satisfaction to attribute-level
performance.In the first section, we discuss the need for an
attribute-levelconceptualization of the performance/satisfaction relationship.That is followed by a discussion of the
asymmetricand nonlinearnatureof the relationshipand the
development of hypotheses. Then we present results from
three studies that test the hypotheses.
Multi-AttributeProducts
and Satisfaction
There are several reasons-theoretical and managerial-to
use multi-attributemodels in the context of customer satisfaction (cf. LaTourand Peat 1979; Wilkie and Pessemier
1973). First, consumers are more likely to render evaluations of their postpurchaseexperiences of satisfaction at an
attributelevel ratherthan at the productlevel (Gardialet al.
1994). Second, an attribute-based approach enables
researchersto conceptualize commonly observed phenomena, such as consumersexperiencing mixed feelings toward
a productor service. A consumer can be both satisfied and
dissatisfied with different aspects of the same product.
Performance/ 33
Negativeand PositiveAttribute-Level
Negative
Performance
on Attribute
II
i
OverallSatisfaction/
RepurchaseIntentions
Positive
Performance
on Attribute
willdisplaydiminishing
sensitivityto
H3b:Overallsatisfaction
Repurchase Intentions
Attribute-level performanceshould affect satisfaction and
repurchase intentions differently (e.g., Ostrom and
Iacobucci 1995). One reason could be that satisfaction and
repurchaseintentions are qualitatively different constructs.
Satisfaction may be merely a judgment with cognitive and
affective dimensions, whereas repurchase intentions also
have a behavioral component. Based on the consumer's
goals (e.g., Mittal et al. 1993), performanceon a certain
attributemay become crucial for repurchaseintentions but
not satisfaction. For example, consider the case of a patient
who is satisfied with all aspects of the service provided by
his or her primary care physician (PCP), except that the
patient has now relocated to another area far from the
PCP's office. When it comes time to renew and choose a
PCP, the patient might indicate high overall satisfaction
with the PCP but still might choose another PCP, because
performance on a critical attributehas changed. In other
words, though the performance on "distance of PCP's
office from home" had a negative impact on repurchase
intentions, it has a small or virtually no impact on overall
satisfaction. One reason for such a discrepancy can be
found in the attributionliterature(Folkes 1988). Here, the
patient may attribute"poor" performanceon "distance of
PCP's office from home" to him or herself or to causes
other than the PCP and thus not change his or her overall
satisfaction rating; nevertheless, the repurchaseintentions
of the patient change. Thus,
will
H4:Overallsatisfactionand attribute-level
performance
haveseparateanddistincteffectson repurchase
intentions.
However, the relative magnitudeof overall satisfaction
and attribute performance should be driven contextually,
and no specific predictionsare made in that regard.H4 simply states that attribute-levelperformanceand overall satisfaction will have separate and distinct impacts on repurchase intentions.
Next, we proposean asymmetriceffect of attribute-level
performance on repurchase intentions. Previous research
(e.g., Oliva, Oliver, and MacMillan 1992) shows that overall satisfaction and performanceare related nonlinearly to
repurchase intentions or loyalty. Feinberg and colleagues
(1990, p. 113) found that across several productcategories
"the probability of repurchase was not isomorphic with
either positive or negative service experiences." Research
also shows that satisfaction and dissatisfactionhave different affective consequences (Oliver 1993), which may be
related differentiallyto repurchaseintentions.Furthermore,
the same psychological principlesthatoperatein the context
of satisfaction also should operate in the context of repurchase intentions.Therefore,
intentionswill be affectedasymmetrically
H5:Repurchase
by
attribute-levelperformance.Negative performanceon
attributeswill havea greaterimpacton repurchase
intentionsthanpositiveperformance.
Performance/35
Negativeand PositiveAttribute-Level
In the next sections, we presentresults from three largescale studies that test the preceding hypotheses. A unique
feature of all three studies is that they use data from commercial studies conducted by firms measuring satisfaction
with their productor service.
Study 1
Data for this study were providedby a large health maintenance organization (HMO) in the Northeastern United
States. The HMO collected these data as partof its ongoing
patient satisfaction measurementprogram. For this study,
the entire data set, which contained informationfrom 4517
telephone interviews conducted among patients enrolled
with the HMO, was used. These interviews were conducted
using Computer-Assisted-Telephone-Interview, which
enabled the interviewerto probe, clarify, and follow up on
responses to open-ended questions. Because responses to
the open-ended questions were a vital part of the measurement process, interviewerswere asked to exercise greatcaution in recordingand following up on them.
The sampling framefor the data set consisted of patients
who subscribedto 501 PCPoffices affiliatedwith the HMO.
A random sample was drawn from each PCP's patient list.
Thus, in effect, a proportionate-stratified
sample, with each
PCP as a stratum,was drawn. After contact with a household had been established, up to two members per household were interviewed as long as they evaluated different
PCPs. Thus, each household provided only one evaluation
per PCP.The qualified respondentwas an adult from a family whose members had visited a PCP within the past 12
months. All 4517 interviews were used in the analysis.
Although the exact responseratefor this survey could not be
ascertained,typical responseratesfor such surveys are more
than 70%. Input from the managersat the HMO and informal comparisons with data from other waves of the study
show that the sample is representativeof the population
served by the HMO.
Measures
The database contained measures for several constructs.
There were two dependentmeasuresfor this analysis: overall satisfaction and repurchaseintentions."Overallsatisfaction with the medical care at the PCP's office" was operationalized as a five-point scale (1 = very dissatisfied, 5 =
very satisfied). Repurchaseintentionor a patient'sintention
to switch to a different PCP was operationalizedas a yes or
no response to the following question: "Do you intend to
switch to a different primarycare physician when you next
have an opportunity?"Although both these measures are
single-item scales, there is considerableprecedentfor using
single-item measures in the context of large-scale satisfaction studies. LaBarberaand Mazursky (1983) discuss the
issue of using single- versus multi-itemscales for measuring
overall satisfaction and conclude that, in large-scale survey
research,the use of multi-itemscales actually may decrease
the quality of measurementratherthanenhanceit. Similarly,
in their large-scale study of driversof customer satisfaction
in the computer industry,Kekre, Krishnan,and Srinivasan
(1995) use a single-item measure for overall satisfaction.
36 / Journalof Marketing,January1998
TABLE 1
and
Their
Relative
Thought Categories
Impact on Overall Satisfaction with Medical Care
Positive Mentions
Negative Mentions
Coefficient
Thorough/attentive
Spends time withme/personable
Not afraidto referto anotherdoctor
Listens to his/her patients
Convenientoffice hours
Convenientoffice location
of doctor
Alwaysavailable/availability
No wait/sees patients rightaway
Coefficient
Matched Categories
.11***
Not thorough
.17****
Doesn't spend enough time/rushesyou in
and out
.07
Won'tgive referrals/trouble
getting referrals
.03
Not interested in patients/doesn'tlisten
.07
Office hours are not convenient
.02
Distance of office is inconvenient
.15***
Not available/isn'talways in office
.14**
Waittoo long/officetoo crowded
-.66****
-.40****
-.77****
-.94****
-.37****
.07
-.67****
-.38****
Unmatched Categories
Good, excellent doctorcare
Knowledge/educated/competent
Explainseverythingwell/answersquestions
Helpful
Good bedside manner
Professional
Friendly/nice/courteous
Concerned/caring/sympathetic
Good withkids
Makes me comfortable/easyto talkto
Verypatient
Sincere/honest/straightforward
Outgoing/goodpersonality/sense of humor
Is warm/kind
Is an old-fashionedtype of doctor
Calls back rightaway/keeps in
contact/followsthorough
Alwaysavailableduringemergency
Promptnessof service
Has been our doctorfor a long time
I like him/her
Staff is very nice/good
Cleanliness of office/building
*p < .10;<
**p.05** <
.26****
.02
.12***
.13*
.13
.13
.11***
.22****
.19****
.06
.15
.15
.25*
.19
.14
-.65****
-.60***
-.84****
-.35****
-.99****
.17***
.32
.02
.33****
.20***
.14**
.05
* **** < .
; p
001; Model R2 = .23, F = 30.9, error df = 4481, p < .0001.
Negativeand PositiveAttribute-Level
Performance/ 37
In this model, the impactof each attributeon overall satisfaction is calculated individually.Furthermore,positively
valenced attributementions are expected to have positive
signs, whereas negatively valenced attributementions are
expected to have negative signs. To test Hla, we must test
whether the absolute impact of a negative mention for an
attribute is greater than the absolute impact of a positive
mention for the same attribute.The model is significant (F =
30.9, p < .0001) and is reportedin Table 1.
Several findings of interestemerge from this table. First,
as shown in the first eight rows of Table 1, there were eight
attributesfor which there were both negative and positive
categories. Therefore,for these eight attributes,Hia could be
tested. For all eight pairs, the negatively valenced attributes
have a larger(in the absolute sense) coefficient than the corresponding positively valenced attributes.We used the statistical test explained previouslyto test whetherthe negative
coefficient for each pair of attributesis largerthan the corresponding positive coefficient for the same attribute;the
null hypothesis in Equation2 was rejectedfor seven of the
eight pairs at p < .001. For example, "always available/
availability of doctor"(.15, p < .01) has a smaller impacton
patient satisfaction than "not available/isn't always in his
office" (-.67, p < .0001). Similarresultscan be noted for (1)
"not afraid to refer to anotherdoctor"(.07, p < .26) versus
"won't give referrals/troublegetting referrals"(-.77, p <
.0001) and (2) "spends time with me/personable"(.17, p <
.0001) versus "doesn't spend enough time/rushesyou in and
out" (-.40, p < .0001). Only for "convenient office location," for which both the positive and negative coefficients
were nonsignificant, was the hypothesis not supported.
These results support Hia. However, because this study is
only able to provide a sense of the direction of a person's
evaluation on each attribute,a full test of H,, cannot be
done. In other words, because there are no data on thei,rgnitude of positive or negative performanceon each attribute,
additional testing for this hypothesis is required.Recall that
though Hla is stated in terms of varying levels of performance on each attribute,there are no data on varying levels
of performancein this study. Nevertheless, these results are
encouraging and point toward tthetype of investigationthat
is carriedout in Study 3.
2Acorrelationmatrixforall thoughtcategoriesshowedthehigh-
Second, differentattributesof the service encountercontribute differently to overall satisfaction. For example,
"cleanlinessof office/building" (.05, p = .78) is not consequential, whereas "no follow-up/doesn't tell you results"
(-.65, p < .0001) has a greaterimpacton overall satisfaction.
Several othercomparisonscan be made with similarresults.
These echo earlier findings (Bolton and Drew 1991) that
service attributesmay be core, facilitating, or supporting
and provideconfidence in our results.
Third, with an R2 of 23%, the overall variation
explained by the model appears to be low. However, this
could have resultedpartiallyfrom loss of informationresulting from the dichotomousnatureof the independentvariable
(Cohen 1983). Furthermore,because the main concern in
this study is to test the asymmetry hypothesis ratherthan
explain variationin the dependentvariable,the low R2 is not
particularlytroublesome.
Cumulative impact and diminishing sensitivity (H3a
and H3b).To test H3aand H3b,the following equation was
estimated:
+ b2(POSITIVE)2
(4) Overallsatisfaction= bi(POSITIVE)
+ b3(NEGATIVE)+ b4(NEGATIVE)2.
3These models also were estimated using standardizedcoefficients. The results for the models with standardizedcoefficients
were practicallyidentical to the results reportedhere.
TABLE 2
Regression Results for Satisfaction
With Medical Care
Variable
Standardized
Regression Standard
Coefficient
Error t-statistic p-value
Intercept
POSITIVE
NEGATIVE
POSITIVE2
NEGATIVE2
4.24
.29
-.72
-.04
.07
.02
.02
.05
.01
.02
199.48
13.87
-13.48
-7.78
3.01
.0001
.0001
.0001
.0001
.0030
p < .0001.
Logistic Regression
TABLE 3
for Intention to Switch to a Different PCP
Variable
Model 1
Attribute
Intercept
-1.50
Model 2
Overall
Satisfaction
4.17
(.07)
POSITIVE
NEGATIVE
-.66
(.05)
1.21
(.08)
Overall satisfaction
Chi-square (d.f.)
AIC
(.23)
3.14
(.24)
-.43
(.05)
708.7 (2)
(p < .0001)
2905.22
Model 3
Attributeand
Overall
Satisfaction
-1.45
(.06)
989.9 (1)
(p < .0001)
2606.10
.76
(.08)
-1.15
(.06)
1182.2 (3)
(p < .0001)
2417.71
% correctly classified
86.0%
88.1%
89.5%
Allcoefficientestimates are significantat p < .001; standarderrorsare in parentheses.
It could be argued that POSITIVEand NEGATIVE
are not 2 but 43 variablesbecause they are composed of multiplebinaryvariables.Therefore, the AICalso was recalculatedafterpenalizingModels 1 and 3 for43 ratherthan 2 variables.The results for
model fitwere virtuallyidentical to the one reportedin the table.
Negativeand PositiveAttribute-Level
Performance/ 39
ity holds for positive performancebut not for negative performanceon attributes.
These results suggest that overall satisfaction displays
diminishingsensitivity to each additionalinstanceof positive
performancebut not necessarilyto negative performance.In
other words, though the relative benefit of positive performance on additionalattributesmay decrease,each additional
instanceof negative performancemay be equallydeleterious.
Repurchase intentions (H4 and H5). Because the measure for switching intentions was a dichotomousvariable, a
logistic regressionanalysis was conductedto test H4and H5.
Three models predicting intention to switch to a different
PCP were estimated. Note that though the hypotheses are
stated in terms of repurchase intentions, results are discussed in terms of intention to switch to maintain consistency with the data. The models used for testing H4 and H5,
which are shown in Table 3, are as follows:
NEGATIVE};
(5) Model1:intentionto switch= f POSITIVE,
(6) Model2: intentionto switch= f{Overallsatisfaction);
NEGATIVE,
(7) Model3: intentionto switch= f{POSITIVE,
Overallsatisfaction}.
In Model 1, only POSITIVEand NEGATIVEwere used
as predictorvariables. In Model 2, only overall satisfaction
was used as a predictorvariable.The thirdmodel used POSITIVE, NEGATIVE,and overallsatisfactionas predictorvariables. Note that these models are concernedonly with asymmetry,not diminishingsensitivity;therefore,only the cumulative variablesPOSITIVEand NEGATIVEare used in these
models. Results from these models are reportedin Table 3.
Results for Model 1, the attributes-onlymodel, confirm
the hypothesis that negative attributesare more consequential for intention to switch than are positive attributesof the
service. Thus, H5 is supported. Next, all three models in
Table 3 were examined to test H4.The fit of the models was
examined using the Akaike InformationCriterion(AIC statistic) of model evaluation(Bollen 1989).The AIC evaluates
alternativemodels while accountingfor the numberof parameters in rival models; it penalizes models with many rather
than few free parameters.Models with smaller AIC values
provide a better fit. The AIC for each of the three models is
shown in Table 3.
The overall satisfactionmodel (Model 2) provides a better fit in predicting repurchase intentions than does the
attribute performance model (Model I); the AIC fit for
Model 2 is smaller thanthatof Model 1. However,Model 3,
which includes both attributeperformanceand overall satisfaction, outperformseither model. The value of the AIC for
Model 3 is smaller than either the overall satisfactionor the
attribute performance model. Thus, H4 is supported.4
4These results also were verified by dividing the data set in two
parts: one with 3517 and the other with 1000 people. The three
models were estimated with the first data set and then used to predict the value for intentionto switch in the holdoutsample of 1000
people. The coefficient estimates were virtually identical to the
ones reportedin Table 4, and the percentagescorrectly classified
for the three models were 65%, 69.9%, and 78.9%, respectively.
These results again supportthe hypotheses.
40 / Journalof Marketing,January1998
Study 2
The purposeof this study is twofold: (1) to corroboratethe
findings of Study 1 in a different setting-automobiles-and (2) to test Hlb, which postulatesan asymmetric
impact of positive and negative disconfirmationon attributes on overall satisfaction. It is important to provide a separate test of Hlb, because both performance and disconfir-
Sample
Data for this study were obtained from a mail survey of
new car buyers throughout the United States. This survey is
part of an ongoing tracking study conducted by a domestic
automotive manufacturer. This study uses a mail survey,
and the response rate for a typical wave of this study ranges
from 36% to 40%, which is similar to the industry standard
colleagues (1993) report results from a large-scale automotive study with a response rate of 33.5%, Hall (1995)
reports results from a patient satisfaction context with a
response rate of 41.1%, and LaBarbera and Mazursky
(1983) report results from grocery item shoppers with a
response rate of 25%.
+ b2 Io Attribute 10(belowexpect.)-
In Equation8, bli representsthe relative impact of positive disconfirmation on attributei, whereas b-i represents
the relative impact of negative disconfirmationon the same
attributeon overall satisfaction. Using this formulation,the
impact of each attribute on overall satisfaction was estimated. This data set had expectation/disconfirmationdata
on ten separateattributes,which resultedin 20 specific coefficients, one for positive and one for negative disconfirmation on each of the ten attributes.Results of the analysis are
shown in Table 4 and are discussed subsequently in two
parts. First, the substantive results related to HIb are discussed; second, the overall model, in terms of the variance
explained and the differentattributesincluded in the model,
is discussed.
Recall that Hib postulatesthat negative disconfirmation
on an attributewill have a greaterimpact than positive dis-
Regression
Attribute
TABLE 4
Results for Study 2
Dummy-Variable
Regression Coefficients
Positive
Negative
Disconfirmation Disconfirmation
Comfort
Ease of getting in
and out of vehicle
Driver'sseating
comfort
Ride quality
Maneuverability/
handling
-.86***
.24***
-.39***
.34***
-.29*
-.42**
.11*
.06n.s.
-.67***
.16**
Quietness of engine
-.39**
.07n.s.
-.62***
-1.43***
-.39**
-.32***
.08n.s
.42***
.01n.s
.08n.s.
Powerand pickup
Qualityof vehicle
Brakes operation
Transmission
p < .0001.
***p< .0001; **p < .01; *p < .05; n.s.p > .10.
Study 3
Study 3 included data from 13,759 respondentswho filled
out a satisfaction survey in the context of the automotive
industry. Before describing the study, it is important to
understandthe specific rationalebehind including Study 3.
Although the results of the previous studies indicate some
support of the central thesis-namely, the asymmetry and
diminishing returns-of this work, they do not test adequately for both asymmetry and diminishing returns for
each individual attribute(Hia and H2). For example, Study
1 shows diminishing sensitivity but only for all attributes
combined, whereas Study 2 is unableto test for diminishing
sensitivity. Therefore,to providedirectevidence for Hla and
H2, this thirdstudy is reported.
Sample
Analysis for Study 3 was based on a customer satisfaction
data set of a major automotive manufacturerin the United
States. This data set was assembled using a mail survey
methodology. Similarto the data in Study 2, these data were
collected as partof an ongoing trackingstudy to assess satisfaction with various aspects of the vehicle ownership
experience. A survey was mailed to people who owned their
vehicle for two or more years. The responserate for this survey varied from wave to wave but rangedbetween 38% and
42% for the last three waves.
In the survey,respondentsratedtheiroverall satisfaction
with the vehicle and evaluatedperformanceon six different
attributes:brakes, transmission,power and pickup, vehicle
quality, quietness, and interiorroominess. Data from 13,759
respondents who answered this section of the survey were
made available for this analysis. Similar to Study 2, the
demographic profile of these respondents was compared
with the demographic profile of the larger database from
which they were extracted. No statistically significant differences were found in terms of age, sex, income, race, or
geographic location (for all, p > .5).
Measures
There were two main constructs: overall satisfaction and
attribute-level performance.Overall satisfaction was measured on a ten-point scale (10 = completely satisfied, I =
42 / Journalof Marketing,January1998
OverallSatisfaction= Intercept
+ LN_PERFi
+ LP_PERFi ... LN_PERF6+ LP_PERF6.
TABLE 5
Regression Results for Study 3
Attribute
Brakes
Transmission
Power and pickup
Vehicle quality
Quietness
Interiorroominess
LP_PERF
LN PERF
(Regression
coefficients for
positive performance
on an attribute)
O.On.s.
.04*
.06**
(Regression
coefficients for
negative performance
on an attribute)
.24***
.35***
.21***
1.41***
.11***
(LN_PERF= LP_PERF)
Yes***
Yes***
Yes*
1.86***
.23***
Yes***
Yes*
.49***
.17*
Reject Constraint?
Yes***
Performance/ 43
Negativeand PositiveAttribute-Level
Discussion
44 / Journalof Marketing,January1998
the attributesin subsequent decisions could shift dramatically. For example, a consumer who has experienced positive performanceon comfort in the decision to purchasea
car may weight it less than another who has experienced
negative performanceon comfort. Previous experiences of
attribute-levelperformancethus serve as importantcontextual cues for subsequent decisions and choices. Applying
these findings to multi-attributemodels of consumerchoice
is a key directionfor furtherresearch.
Similarly,these results also point towarda careful reexaminationof satisfactionand its consequentbehaviors,such
as retentionand word-of-mouthactivity. Previousconceptualizations have assumed these relationshipsto be linear and
symmetric (Yi 1990). However, satisfaction's impact on
these behaviors could be asymmetric and nonlinear.High
levels of satisfaction might not increase retention,but high
levels of dissatisfaction might have a large and deleterious
impact on retention.An asymmetricconceptualizationalso
could help explain the curious finding that most firms are
experiencing, that is, high rates of customer defection
despite high rates of customer satisfaction (Reichheld
1996). High dissatisfaction with a product might prompt
high levels of information search for alternative brands,
whereas high levels of satisfaction might not decrease the
amount of informationsearch substantially;this asymmetry
has implicationsfor considerationset formationand choice.
Given the increased emphasis on linking satisfaction
research to the bottom line (Reichheld 1996), these issues
warrantcareful attention.
Finally, the finding that attribute-levelperformancealso
has a direct impact on repurchaseintentionsnot only is surprising but also calls into question previous models of satisfaction. These models (for a review, see lacobucci et al.
1996) presumethat attribute-levelevaluations affect behavioral intentions but only through an overall satisfaction
judgment. This finding raises several importantquestions
that need more research. First, the conditions under which
the direct impact of attribute-level outcomes is larger
(smaller) than the one mediatedthroughsatisfactionshould
be outlined. Second, it could be that the mediating role of
overall satisfaction is different for different attributesand
dependenton the magnitudeand directionof the asymmetry.
Developing a typology of attributes should help resolve
these issues.
Implications for Practice
The key implication for managers is that they no longer
should view attribute performance with a neutral eye.
Although positive and negative performanceon an attribute
are two sides of the same coin, each side of the coin buys a
different amountof overall satisfactionor repurchaseintentions. This asymmetry should be kept in mind in trying to
manage attribute-levelperformance.The strategic implication of this result is clear: To maximize overall satisfaction
and repurchase intentions, managers should optimize and
not maximize attribute-levelperformance.For example, for
any given attributeit is more importantto eliminatenegative
performancefirst and then focus on increasingperformance
in the positive direction. Similarly, in a given set of attrib-
utes, focus on attributesfor which customersare experiencing negative performance and then allocate resources to
maximizing performanceon attributesfor which consumers
are experiencing positive performance.
Concluding Comments
Despite the initial wave of skepticism with satisfaction
research among practitioners and academics, it now is
acknowledged that customer satisfaction and retention are
key strategic imperatives and not fads (e.g., Honomichl
1993; Reichheld 1996). Increasingly,researchersalso are
finding that the relationships between satisfaction and its
antecedents and consequences are complex (cf. Anderson
and Sullivan 1993; Coyne 1989; Oliva, Oliver, and Bearden
1995). Therefore, understandingthe complexity of these
interrelationshipshas become a key strategicimperativefor
most firms (e.g, Jones and Sasser 1995). We hope that this
work represents a small step in that direction and will
encourage further research aimed at understandingthese
complexities.
Appendix
Follow-up tests for H3bwere conducted to ensure that the
reported results are not due to the differing salience or
importance of some of the attributes used in the study.
Salience is operationalizedas the frequency with which an
attributeis mentioned (higher numberof mentions= higher
salience), whereas importance is operationalized as the
magnitudeof the regressionweight (largerregressioncoefficient = higher importance).To check for this possibility,
the cumulative variables were reconstructed, excluding
those attributesthat were not importantor salient.
To check for the salience bias, the first set of variables
was constructedfrom attributeson the basis of the number
of mentions. With number of mentions as a proxy for
salience, only those attributesthatreceived the top 3, 4, 5, or
6 mentions were included. To clarify, POSFRQ3 and
NEGFRQ3used only those attributesthat received the first,
second, and third highest number of mentions. POSFRQ4
and NEGFRQ4 also included the attributethat received the
fourthhighest numberof mentions, and so on. To check for
the importance bias, the cumulative variables were constructedon the basis of their imputedimportance.With the
regression weight in Table 2 as a proxy for an attribute's
importance, variables called POSREG5 and NEGREG5
were constructed using those attributes that had the five
highest regressionweights for the positive and negative categories. Similar variablesalso were constructedon the basis
of the top six and seven regressionweights.
These strategies of integrationare consistent with prior
theoreticaland empirical research(e.g., Dawes 1979). Furthermore,satisfaction researchers(e.g., Oliver 1993) have
used additive-linearcombinationsto integrateperformance
on several attributes.To summarize,eight additionalsets of
variables were constructed: POSFRQ or NEGFRQ3-6,
POSREG or NEGREG5-7, and POSWTD or NEGWTD5.
Next, the following model was estimated for each set of
variables:
Performance/ 45
Negativeand PositiveAttribute-Level
TABLE A1
Summary of Various Tests for Asymmetry and Diminishing Sensitivity
Restrictions
Test
Variable
R2
-.98***
.15*
.14
9.8,
-.78***
.07n.s.
.15
4.9, .0300
-.73***
-1.38***
-.78***
.02n.s.
.28***
.08n.s.
.17
.18
.18
-.13***
-.09***
-.08**
-1.22***
-1.21***
-.80***
.20***
.22***
.05n.s.
6.4,
50.9,
16.9,
.19
.21
.14
-.04***
-.72***
44.2, .0001
66.6, .0001
24.9, .0001
.07**
.23
50.4,
b2
POS3FRQ (salience)
.58***
-.16***
POS4FRQ (salience)
.53***
-.13***
POS5FRQ (salience)
POS5RG (importance)
POS6FRQ (salience)
.49***
.54***
.44***
-.11***
-.14***
-.09***
.52***
.46***
.35***
.29***
POS6RG (importance)
POS7RG (importance)
POSMTCH(importance)
(F-statistic,
significance)
b4
bl
b3
.0020
.0100
.0001
.0001
.0001
nificant for all of the nine models (p < .001), but b4 was significant only for five of the nine models. To ascertain the
"joint" statistical significance on the basis of these nine
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Performance/47
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