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Chapter Two
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 General
In this chapter, a survey of available related literature review oresearch
work related to shear behavior of SCC beams is considered. Literature review
on shear strengthening with FRP and the methods of design for this
strengthening are mentioned, shear behavior of the SCC beams and the
mechanisms of shear transfer in beams are also given.
2.2 Self-Compacting Concrete (SCC)
2.2.1 Basic Principles for Self-Compacting Concrete
The method for achieving self-compactability involves not only high
deformability of paste or mortar, but also resistance to segregation between
coarse aggregate and mortar when the concrete flows through the confined
zone of reinforcing bars(3).
SCC mixes always contain a powerful superplasticizer and often use a
large quantity of powder materials and/ or viscosity-modifying admixtures.
The super plasticizer is necessary for producing a highly fluid concrete mix
while the powder materials or viscosity agents are required to maintain
sufficient viscosity of the mix (low segregation and bleeding)(32).
SCC differs from compacting concrete (CC) in that its fresh properties
are critical to its ability to be placed satisfactorly. A concrete mix can only be
classified as self compacting concrete if the requirements for all three
characteristics below are fulfilled (a number of researchers agreed with the
following statements (8, 42, 42)):
1. Filling Ability: which is defined as the ability of fresh concrete to
flow, maintaining homogeneity whilst undergoing the deformation
necessary to completely fill the formwork, encasing the reinforcement
and achieving compaction through its own weight.
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LITERATURE REVIEW
Mobility
Slump-flow
XX
T50 cm
n.a
L-box
n.a
Passibility
Segregation
Resistance
Viscosity
n.a
n.a
n.a
n.a
XX
X= acceptable
Chapter TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
Table (2-2) Test methods and the properties evaluated along with the
acceptance criteria for SCC (27, 28)
No.
Method
Property
Acceptance criteria
Unit
Min.
Max.
Filling ability
1.
Slump flow
Filling ability
mm
650
800
2.
Filling ability
sec
3.
V-funnel
Filling ability
sec
12
Passing ability
0.8
sec
Passing ability
1.
L-box
V-funnel T5min.
Stability
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(30)
.other factors affecting shear strength of concrete beams are given below
(32)
:
Type of loading (e.g., point load, two point load, uniformly distributed
load, symmetrical or unsymmetrical, repeated loadings, dynamic
loading, reversed loadings, axial loading, etc).
Shape of cross section (rectangular, T-section, L-section, etc).
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Effect of the support (e.g., fixed, roller, width of the testing plates).
Effect of aggregate (e.g, Lightweight, shape, maximum size, texture,
etc.).
Effect of the difference of concrete properties due to curing and
temperature during molding.
Effect of prestressing.
Effect of detailing (dimensional consistency, cover dimension, bar
spacing, number of bars used, etc).
The main factors explained in details as follow:
2.3.1 Concrete Compressive Strength ( )
Some codes of practice imply that beam shear strength is proportional
to the rate of ( )0.5 (ACI committee 318(33)).
Taylor
(32)
increased concrete strength. However, the rate of this load increase is lower
than that of concrete strength increase.
Taub and Neville
(34)
is because the shear strength depends on concrete tensile strength and the
latter has a curvilinear relationship with compressive strength.
Placas and Regan
(36)
...(2.1)
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LITERATURE REVIEW
(37)
confirmed
(38)
(40)
based on the theory of fracture mechanics. This equation accounts for the size
effect phenomenon as well as the longitudinal steel ratio and incorporates the
effect of aggregate size. This equation was calibrated using 296 previous tests
obtained from the literature and was compared with the AC1 Code equations.
It was noticed after the comparison that the practice used in the AC1 Code of
designing for diagonal shear crack initiation rather than ultimate strength does
not yield a uniform safety margin when different beam sizes are considered. It
was also found according to the new equation that for very large specimen
depths the factor of safety in the AC1 Code almost disappears.
Shioya
(41)
the influence of member depth and aggregate size on shear strength was
investigated. In this study, lightly reinforced concrete beams containing no
transverse reinforcement were tested under a uniformly distributed load. The
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Chapter TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
beam depths in this experimental program ranged from 100 mm to 300 mm.
The same worker also found that the shear stress at failure decreased as the
member size increased and as the aggregate size decreased.
2.3.4 Shear Span-to-Effective Depth Ratio (a/d)
The shear span-to-depth ratio is the ratio of the distance (a) between
the support and the loading point to the effective depth (d) of the beam, i.e.,
(a/d). Many researches have shown that failure mode is strongly dependent on
the shear span to depth ratios (a/d). The shear strength increases as the shear
span to-depth ratio decreases (39, 42, 43, 44). This phenomenon is quite significant
in deep beams with the ratio (a/d) less than about 2.5 because a portion of
shear is transmitted directly to the support by an inclined strut (arch action).
As strut-and-tie models consider this direct shear flow in a concrete member,
it is more appropriate to use strut-and-tie models than sectional design
approaches for these deep beams (44).
Elzanaty et. al.
(45)
(65.5MPa) and longitudinal steel ratio of 1.2%-2.5%. They found that the
shear strength of test beams decreased with rising (a/d). They observed a high
shear strength of the beam with a/d =2, even with low w. Increasing (a/d)
from 2 to (4 and 6) leads to 9% and 35% decreases in shear strength in beams
with w values 2.5% and 1.2%, respectively.
2.3.5 Shear Reinforcement Ratio
Superposition
of
the
concrete
contribution
and
stirrup
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Chapter TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
(46)
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LITERATURE REVIEW
defined as an inclined crack in the shear span extending from the tensile
reinforcement towards the nearest concentrated load (48). Andrew and Gregory
(49)
defined the diagonal cracking stress as the shear stress at the time when
diagonal crack (the one that causes failure) becomes inclined and crosses middepth.
The shear force (V) in a cracked section of reinforced concrete beams,
with shear reinforcement (stirrups), is mainly resisted by the shear resistance
of compression zone (Vc), interlocking action of aggregate (Va), dowel action
(Vd) and shear reinforcement (Vs), as shown in Fig.(2-2). Meanwhile, in a
relatively short beam, the load is transferred directly from the loading points
to supports owing to arch action (48).
The amount of stirrup has the direct relations to the shear resistance by
increasing the effectiveness of beam action. Accordingly, in this terminology,
shear strength contributed by concrete was remained constant, no effect of
stirrup effectiveness, but changed in term of shear resisted by stirrup for
simplifying. Shear strength of beams with web reinforcement can be
determined by equation (2-3) (50):
Vn = Vc + Vs
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Chapter TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
(47)
and Paulay (51), Taylor (52), and Mattock and Hawkins (53).
The physical explanation of (Va) for normal density concrete is
"aggregate interlock", i.e.; aggregates protruding from the crack surface
provide resistance against slip. Because cracks go through the aggregates in
high strength concrete, the crack surface still has the ability to transfer shear,
thus, the term "friction" or "interface shear" is more appropriate (46).
Walraven
(54)
aggregate particles (idealized as spheres) will project from the crack interface.
Other relationships have been proposed based on Walraven's
11
(54)
experimental
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LITERATURE REVIEW
(55)
(56)
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LITERATURE REVIEW
(58)
first on-site repair by externally bonded FRP took place in 1991. Since then,
strengthening by externally bonded FRP composites has been studied
worldwide. The sudden increase in the use of FRP composites was attained
after the 1995 Hyogoken Nanbu Earthquake in Japan. By 1997, more than
1500 concrete structures worldwide had been reinforced with externally
bonded FRP composites (59).
Strengthening with externally bonded FRP reinforcement has been
shown to be applicable to many types of RC structures. Currently, this
method has been implemented to strengthen such structural elements as
columns, beams, slabs, walls, chimneys, tunnels, and silos. The uses of
external FRP reinforcement may be generally classified as flexural
strengthening, improving the confinement and ductility of compression
members, and shear strengthening (60).
2.5.3 Strengthening Methods
It is important to stress that it is often more complicated to strengthen a
structure than to erect a new one. However, concerns must be taken to
existing materials, often in deteriorated condition, loads during strengthening
and to existing geometry. In some cases it is difficult to reach the areas that
need to be strengthened. Further, the existing documentation of the structure
is often very poor and sometimes even wrong (57).
The strengthening should be designed with consideration to minimize
the maintenance and repair needs. Not only the economical and structural
aspects that should form the basis for decisions of strengthening and choice of
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Chapter TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
(62)
fully wrapped. From the tests it was observed that CFRP substantially
increases the shear capacity of beams without stirrups. He concluded that, the
strains in the stirrups and the CFRP are different even at the same locations.
This is because a stirrup stretches evenly over its length while the CFRP strip,
which is adhered to concrete, stretches over a limited area across the shear
crack.
Sato et al.
(63)
FRP increases the shear strength significantly. The U-wrap CFRP is more
effective than CFRP attached only to the sides. The strains of CFRP on two
beams were measured during the test; the first used U-wrap CFRP, while the
second had CFRP on sides only. It was shown that the CFRP strain along the
major shear crack was not uniform. CFRP strain is large at the middle of the
shear crack, small at the end of the crack. They concluded that the shear force
carried by CFRP was greater than that by stirrups.
Taerwe et al.
(64)
Chapter TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
CFRP increases the shear capacity in a way similar to that of internal stirrups.
The CFRP contribution can be calculated in a similar manner provided the
unique character of CFRP is considered, such as the amount and distribution
of the ultimate strains.
2.5.3.2 Behavior of Bond between CFRP and Concrete
CFRP is integrated to reinforced concrete beams with epoxy glue. Prior
to cracking, CFRP and concrete work together. The modulus of elasticity of
CFRP at tension is about 7 times bigger than the modulus of elasticity of
concrete. Therefore external CFRP reinforcement of the flexural reinforced
concrete member restricts the strains in concrete tension, since prior to
cracking concrete and CFRP work together. Also the critical tension strains of
CFRP are much bigger than those of the concrete. As a result, the critical
tension strains of the concrete increases. It has also been found that CFRP
reinforcement in the tension zone influences expansion of cracks and restricts
the cracks development; therefore the width and height of the cracks do not
increase (64).
Due to the extreme importance of the bond between CFRP and the
concrete, some researchers performed experiments to better understand and
define this behavior.
The application of FRP plate or sheet material has been likened to
applying wallpaper; once it has been rolled on carefully to remove entrapped
air and excess adhesive it may be left unsupported. In general, no bolts are
required; in fact, the use of bolts would seriously weaken the material unless
additional cover plats are bond on. Furthermore, because there is no need to
drill into the structure to fix bolts or other mechanical anchors there is on risk
of damaging the existing reinforcement (65).
Chajes et al.
(66)
Chapter TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
. The
tests indicated that the strain distribution in the CFRP along the bond length
decreases at a fairly linear rate. This means that the bond stress is almost
uniform. Tests also showed that there is a bond development length beyond
which no further increase in load force can be achieved.
2.6 Shear Strengthening Options by CFRP
2.6.1 General
In shear strengthening situations of RC beams, externally bonded FRP
reinforcement is used to wrap the beam cross section with the fibers in the
transverse direction in order to reinforce against diagonal tension cracks in
much the same way as steel stirrups. From this general approach, several
configurations of FRP shear reinforcing have been devised and investigated.
The goal of this section is to describe several alternatives that are available to
the designer that were considered by researchers.
2.6.2 Bonded Surface Configurations (Shape of CFRP Strip)
In shear strengthening situations of RC beams, three options of FRP
bonded surface configuration have been investigated
. The first
option is to apply the FRP reinforcement on both sides of the beam. The
effectiveness of this configuration is limited due to possible debonding failure
of the FRP reinforcement
(68)
bottom of the beams (U-wrap) and the third is total wrap (wrapped around).
The U-wrap is practical and is relatively effective in increasing the shear
capacity of the beams
(64)
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Chapter TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
(33)
gives
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LITERATURE REVIEW
reinforcement,
within spacing
(mm),
(MPa) is the
(69)
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LITERATURE REVIEW
Fig. (2-3) Typical wrapping schemes for shear strengthening using FRP
laminates (69)
The additional strength gain from the FRP is analogous to the shear
strength contribution from steel and concrete respectively allowable.
Committee 440 considers a value up to 40% increase in flexural strength
capacity is reasonable. In this respect, the FRP contribution is simply added to
the previous two shear contributions, resulting in a nominal resistance as
shown in Equation (2.8):
. (2.8)
Where strength reduction factor equal to 0.75 ,
Equation (2.5), and
obtaining
is calculated using
= 0.85
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Chapter TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
Fig. (2-4) Illustration of the dimensional variables used in shearstrengthening calculations for repair, retrofit, or strengthening using FRP
laminates (69)
Fig. (2-4) illustrates the dimensional variables used in shearstrengthening calculations for FRP laminates, where Vf is calculated
according to the Equation (2.9):
.(2.9)
Where
nominal thickness of
effective strain level in FRP attained at failure. Equation (2.12) represents the
design strain limit in CFRP for beams completely wrapped with CFRP and
loaded in shear:
Where:
.................................................................... (2.12)
is design rupture strain of FRP reinforcement.
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Chapter TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
(69)
guide to the
is the active bond length over which the majority of the bond
stress is maintained,
and
coefficient that account for the concrete strength and the type of wrapping
scheme used, respectively. Expressions for
..... (2.16)
.. (2.17)
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LITERATURE REVIEW
.................................................................... (2.18)
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Chapter TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
it so that excess of material can be avoided. This can lead that the contractor
(or the owner) can have economic and safe structure.
This work aims at studying the influence of carbon fiber with
reinforced SCC beams (according to shear span to depth ratio (a/d), shape and
CFRP amount and distribution) to resist the shear force in the reinforced SCC
beams with taking the structural safety with economy side in the study
because the CFRP sheets have expensive price in local market.
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