Cognitive psychology

Zhong-Lin Lu and Barbara Anne

Dosher (2007), Scholarpedia,
2(8):2769.
Post-publication activity

doi:10.4249/scholarpedia.2769

revision #88969
[link to/cite this
article]

Curator: Barbara Anne Dosher

Dr. Zhong-Lin Lu, Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Southern

California, Los Angeles, CA
Dr. Barbara Anne Dosher, Department of Cognitive Science, University of
California, Irvine

Cognitive psychology is the scientific investigation of human cognition, that is, all our
mental abilities perceiving, learning, remembering, thinking, reasoning, and
understanding. The term cognition stems from the Latin word cognoscere or "to
know". Fundamentally, cognitive psychology studies how people acquire and apply
knowledge or information. It is closely related to the highly interdisciplinary cognitive
science and influenced by artificial intelligence, computer science, philosophy,
anthropology, linguistics, biology, physics, and neuroscience.

Contents
[hide]

1 History
2 Assumptions
3 Approaches
4 Sub-domains of Cognitive Psychology
5 Applications
6 References
7 External Links

8 See Also

History
Cognitive psychology in its modern form incorporates a remarkable set of new
technologies in psychological science. Although published inquiries of human cognition
can be traced back to Aristotles De Memoria (Hothersall, 1984), the intellectual
origins of cognitive psychology began with cognitive approaches to psychological
problems at the end of the 1800s and early 1900s in the works of Wundt, Cattell, and
William James (Boring, 1950).
Cognitive psychology declined in the first half of the 20th century with the rise of
behaviorism" - the study of laws relating observable behavior to objective, observable
stimulus conditions without any recourse to internal mental processes (Watson, 1913;
Boring, 1950; Skinner, 1950). It was this last requirement, fundamental to cognitive

psychology, that was one of behaviorism's undoings. For example, lack of

understanding of the internal mental processes led to no distinction between memory
and performance and failed to account for complex learning (Tinklepaugh, 1928;
Chomsky, 1959). These issue led to the decline of behaviorism as the dominant branch
of scientific psychology and to the Cognitive Revolution.
The Cognitive Revolution began in the mid-1950s when researchers in several fields
began to develop theories of mind based on complex representations and computational
procedures (Miller, 1956; Broadbent, 1958; Chomsky, 1959; Newell, Shaw, & Simon,
1958). Cognitive psychology became predominant in the 1960s (Tulving, 1962;
Sperling, 1960). Its resurgence is perhaps best marked by the publication of Ulric
Neissers book, Cognitive Psychology, in 1967. Since 1970, more than sixty
universities in North America and Europe have established cognitive psychology
programs.

Assumptions
Cognitive psychology is based on two assumptions: (1) Human cognition can at least in
principle be fully revealed by the scientific method, that is, individual components of
mental processes can be identified and understood, and (2) Internal mental processes
can be described in terms of rules or algorithms in information processing models.
There has been much recent debate on these assumptions (Costall and Still, 1987;
Dreyfus, 1979; Searle, 1990).

Approaches
Very much like physics, experiments and simulations/modelling are the major research
tools in cognitive psychology. Often, the predictions of the models are directly
compared to human behaviour. With the ease of access and wide use of brain imaging
techniques, cognitive psychology has seen increasing influence of cognitive
neuroscience over the past decade. There are currently three main approaches in
cognitive psychology: experimental cognitive psychology, computational cognitive
psychology, and neural cognitive psychology.
Experimental cognitive psychology treats cognitive psychology as one of the natural
sciences and applies experimental methods to investigate human cognition.
Psychophysical responses, response time, and eye tracking are often measured in
experimental cognitive psychology. Computational cognitive psychology develops
formal mathematical and computational models of human cognition based on symbolic
and subsymbolic representations, and dynamical systems. Neural cognitive psychology
uses brain imaging (e.g., EEG, MEG, fMRI, PET, SPECT, Optical Imaging) and
neurobiological methods (e.g., lesion patients) to understand the neural basis of human
cognition. The three approaches are often inter-linked and provide both independent and
complementary insights in every sub-domain of cognitive psychology.

Sub-domains of Cognitive Psychology

Traditionally, cognitive psychology includes human perception, attention, learning,
memory, concept formation, reasoning, judgment and decision-making, problem
solving, and language processing. For some, social and cultural factors, emotion,

consciousness, animal cognition, evolutionary approaches have also become part of

cognitive psychology.

Perception: Those studying perception seek to understand how we construct

subjective interpretations of proximal information from the environment.
Perceptual systems are composed of separate senses (e.g., visual, auditory,
somatosensory) and processing modules (e.g., form, motion; Livingston &
Hubel, 1988; Ungerleider & Mishkin, 1982; Julesz, 1971) and sub-modules
(e.g., Lu & Sperling, 1995) that represent different aspects of the stimulus
information. Current research also focuses on how these separate representations
and modules interact and are integrated into coherent percepts. Cognitive
psychologists have studied these properties empirically with psychophysical
methods and brain imaging. Computational models, based on physiological
principles, have been developed for many perceptual systems (Grossberg &
Mingolla, 1985; Marr, 1982; Wandell, 1995).
Attention: Attention solves the problem of information overload in cognitive
processing systems by selecting some information for further processing, or by
managing resources applied to several sources of information simultaneously
(Broadbent, 1957; Posner, 1980; Treisman, 1969). Empirical investigation of
attention has focused on how and why attention improves performance, or how
the lack of attention hinders performance (Posner, 1980; Weichselgartner &
Sperling, 1987; Chun & Potter, 1995; Pashler, 1999). The theoretical analysis of
attention has taken several major approaches to identify the mechanisms of
attention: the signal-detection approach (Lu & Dosher, 1998) and the similaritychoice approach (Bundesen, 1990; Logan, 2004). Related effects of biased
competition have been studied in single cell recordings in animals (Reynolds,
Chelazzi, & Desimone, 1999). Brain imaging studies have documented effects
of attention on activation in early visual cortices, and have investigated the
networks for attention control (Kanwisher & Wojciulik, 2000).
Learning: Learning improves the response of the organism to the environment.
Cognitive psychologists study which new information is acquired and the
conditions under which it is acquired. The study of learning begins with an
analysis of learning phenomena in animals (i.e., habituation, conditioning, and
instrumental, contingency, and associative learning) and extends to learning of
cognitive or conceptual information by humans (Kandel, 1976; Estes, 1969;
Thompson, 1986). Cognitive studies of implicit learning emphasize the largely
automatic influence of prior experience on performance, and the nature of
procedural knowledge (Roediger, 1990). Studies of conceptual learning
emphasize the nature of the processing of incoming information, the role of
elaboration, and the nature of the encoded representation (Craik, 2002). Those
using computational approaches have investigated the nature of concepts that
can be more easily learned, and the rules and algorithms for learning systems
(Holland, Holyoak, Nisbett, & Thagard, 1986). Those using lesion and imaging
studies investigate the role of specific brain systems (e.g., temporal lobe
systems) for certain classes of episodic learning, and the role of perceptual
systems in implicit learning (Tulving, Gordon Hayman, & MacDonald, 1991;
Gabrieli, Fleischman, Keane, Reminger, & Morell, 1995; Grafton, Hazeltine, &
Ivry, 1995).
Memory: The study of the capacity and fragility of human memory is one of the
most developed aspects of cognitive psychology. Memory study focuses on how

memories are acquired, stored, and retrieved. Memory domains have been
functionally divided into memory for facts, for procedures or skills, and working
and short-term memory capacity. The experimental approaches have identified
dissociable memory types (e.g., procedural and episodic; Squire & Zola, 1996)
or capacity limited processing systems such as short-term or working memory
(Cowan, 1995; Dosher, 1999). Computational approaches describe memory as
propositional networks, or as holographic or composite representations and
retrieval processes (Anderson, 1996, Shiffrin & Steyvers, 1997). Brain imaging
and lesion studies identify separable brain regions active during storage or
retrieval from distinct processing systems (Gabrieli, 1998).
Concept Formation: Concept or category formation refers to the ability to
organize the perception and classification of experiences by the construction of
functionally relevant categories. The response to a specific stimulus (i.e., a cat)
is determined not by the specific instance but by classification into the category
and by association of knowledge with that category (Medin & Ross, 1992). The
ability to learn concepts has been shown to depend upon the complexity of the
category in representational space, and by the relationship of variations among
exemplars of concepts to fundamental and accessible dimensions of
representation (Ashby, 2000). Certain concepts largely reflect similarity
structures, but others may reflect function, or conceptual theories of use (Medin,
1989). Computational models have been developed based on aggregation of
instance representations, similarity structures and general recognition models,
and by conceptual theories (Barsalou, 2003). Cognitive neuroscience has
identified important brain structures for aspects or distinct forms of category
formation (Ashby, Alfonso-Reese, Turken, and Waldron, 1998).
Judgment and decision: Human judgment and decision making is ubiquitous
voluntary behavior implicitly or explicitly requires judgment and choice. The
historic foundations of choice are based in normative or rational models and
optimality rules, beginning with expected utility theory (von Neumann &
Morgenstern 1944; Luce, 1959). Extensive analysis has identified widespread
failures of rational models due to differential assessment of risks and rewards
(Luce and Raiffa, 1989), the distorted assessment of probabilities (Kahneman &
Tversky, 1979), and the limitations in human information processing (i.e., Russo
& Dosher, 1983). New computational approaches rely on dynamic systems
analyses of judgment and choice (Busemeyer & Johnson, 2004), and Bayesian
belief networks that make choices based on multiple criteria (Fenton & Neil,
2001) for more complex situations. The study of decision making has become an
active topic in cognitive neuroscience (Bechara, Damasio and Damasio, 2000).
Reasoning: Reasoning is the process by which logical arguments are
evaluated or constructed. Original investigations of reasoning focused on the
extent to which humans correctly applied the philosophically derived rules of
inference in deduction (i.e., A implies B; If A then B), and the many ways in
which humans fail to appreciate some deductions and falsely conclude others.
These were extended to limitations in reasoning with syllogisms or quantifiers
(Johnson-Laird, Byne and Schaeken, 1992; Rips and Marcus, 1977). Inductive
reasoning, in contrast, develops a hypothesis consistent with a set of
observations or reasons by analogy (Holyoak and Thagard, 1995). Often
reasoning is affected by heuristic judgments, fallacies, and the
representativeness of evidence, and other framing phenomena (Kahneman,
Slovic, Tversky, 1982). Computational models have been developed for

inference making and analogy (Holyoak and Thagard, 1995), logical reasoning
(Rips and Marcus, 1977), and Bayesian reasoning (Sanjana and Tenenbaum,
2003).
Problem Solving: The cognitive psychology of problem solving is the study of
how humans pursue goal directed behavior. The computational state-space
analysis and computer simulation of problem solving of Newell and Simon
(1972) and the empirical and heuristic analysis of Wickelgren (1974) together
have set the cognitive psychological approach to problem solving. Solving a
problem is conceived as finding operations to move from the initial state to a
goal state in a problem space using either algorithmic or heuristic solutions. The
problem representation is critical in finding solutions (Zhang, 1997). Expertise
in knowledge rich domains (i.e., chess) also depends on complex pattern
recognition (Gobet & Simon, 1996). Problem solving may engage perception,
memory, attention, and executive function, and so many brain areas may be
engaged in problem solving tasks, with an emphasis on pre-frontal executive
functions.
Language Processing: While linguistic approaches focus on the formal
structures of languages and language use (Chomsky, 1965), cognitive
psychology has focused on language acquisition, language comprehension,
language production, and the psychology of reading (Kintsch 1974; Pinker,
1994; Levelt, 1989). Psycholinguistics has studied encoding and lexical access
of words, sentence level processes of parsing and representation, and general
representations of concepts, gist, inference, and semantic assumptions.
Computational models have been developed for all of these levels, including
lexical systems, parsing systems, semantic representation systems, and reading
aloud (Seidenberg, 1997; Coltheart, Rastle, Perry, Langdon, & Ziegler, 2001;
Just, Carpenter, and Woolley, 1982; Thorne, Bratley & Dewar, 1968; Schank and
Abelson, 1977; Massaro, 1998). The neuroscience of language has a long history
in the analysis of lesions (Wernicke, 1874; Broca, 1861), and has also been
extensively studied with cognitive imaging (Posner et al, 1988).

Applications
Cognitive psychology research has produced an extensive body of principles,
representations, and algorithms. Successful applications range from custom-built expert
systems to mass-produced software and consumer electronics: (1) Development of
computer interfaces that collaborate with users to meet their information needs and
operate as intelligent agents, (2) Development of a flexible information infrastructure
based on knowledge representation and reasoning methods, (3) Development of smart
tools in the financial industry, (4) Development of mobile, intelligent robots that can
perform tasks usually reserved for humans, (5) Development of bionic components of
the perceptual and cognitive neural system such as cochlear and retinal implants.

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Internal references

Valentino Braitenberg (2007) Brain. Scholarpedia, 2(11):2918.

Olaf Sporns (2007) Complexity. Scholarpedia, 2(10):1623.
James Meiss (2007) Dynamical systems. Scholarpedia, 2(2):1629.
Paul L. Nunez and Ramesh Srinivasan (2007) Electroencephalogram.
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Robert Kurzban (2007) Evolutionary psychology. Scholarpedia, 2(8):3161.
William D. Penny and Karl J. Friston (2007) Functional imaging. Scholarpedia,
2(5):1478.
Seiji Ogawa and Yul-Wan Sung (2007) Functional magnetic resonance imaging.
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External Links

Zhong-Lin Lu's lab website

Zhong-Lin Lu's website

Barbara Anne Dosher's website

See Also
Cognitive Neuropsychology, Evolutionary Psychology, Neuropsychology

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Reviewed by: Anonymous
Reviewed by: Dr. Max Coltheart, Macquarie Centre for Cognitive Science, Macquarie
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Accepted on: 2007-08-11 00:47:35 GMT