Basic Instrumentation

Course
Prepared by
Eng\ Ahmed Mohamed Abdel-Halim
EMC, MIDOR Site
2008

Introduction

Instrumentation is the art of measuring the value of some

field parameter, pressure, flow, level or temperature to
produce a dial indication or a standard (4 - 20 mA)
electronic signal - (3 15 psi) pneumatic signal - that
represents the value of field parameter in a process.
This signal can be used to directly control other
instruments, or sent to a computerized controller system
where it can be interpreted into readable values, or used to
control other devices and processes in the system.
Instrumentation engineering is the engineering
specialization focused on the principle and operation of
measuring instruments which are used in design and
configuration of automated systems.

1. Pressure Measurements

1- Pressure Measurements

General theory (Pascal's law)

Pressure units are pounds per square inch (PSI), (bar) or

millimeter water (mmH2O).
Atmospheric pressure = 14.6 psi
= 1.01325 bar
= 10000 mmH2O

Pressure Scales

Gauge and Absolute pressure

Pa = Pg + Patm

(when Pg > Patm)

Pa = Pg Patm

(when Pg < Patm)

Pressure In A Fluid

Liquids are uncompressible.

For an opened vessel,
Pa = Patm + gh
Pascal's law

Pressure In A Fluid

Pascal's law indicates that the shape of the open tank

does not affect the pressure and that the pressure is
influenced only by the depth (h) and the density ().
Application: Hydraulic press.
The pressure at every point on the same line is equal:
P1 = P 2
So that

F2 = (A2 / A1) F1

The hydraulic press is a force amplifier where the gain

is (A2 / A1)

The Hydraulic Press

Pressure Exerted by Gases

General law for gases

PV = KT

At const. temperature (Boyles law)

P = (K / V)

P (1 / V)

At const. volume (Charles law)

P=KT

PT

Manometers

Can provide a very accurate measurement of pressure

Used as calibration standards for other pressure
measurement devices.

P = gh

Manometers

Pressure Gauges

Pressure gauges are used for local indication

Pressure gauges consist of a dial or indicator and a
pressure element.
A pressure element converts pressure into a mechanical
motion.
Most mechanical pressure elements rely on the fact that
pressure acts on a surface area inside the element to
produce a force that causes a mechanical deflection.

Bourdon Tube

Bourdon tubes are circular-shaped tubes with oval cross

sections.
The outward pressure on the
oval cross section forces it to
become rounded.
This movement provides a
displacement that is
proportional to the applied
pressure.
The tube is mechanically linked to
a pointer on a pressure dial to give
a reading.

Bourdon Tube

Bourdon Tube

Diaphragm

A diaphragm is a flexible membrane that expands when

pressure applied .
In pressure-measuring instruments, the diaphragms are
normally metallic.
When two are fastened together they form a container
called a capsule.
Pressure applied inside the diaphragm capsule causes it to
expand and produce motion along its axis.

Diaphragm

Bellows

The bellows pressure element converts a pressure into a

physical displacement.
It is very similar to a
diaphragm-type gauge
the difference is that
typically the movement
in a bellows is much
more of a straight-line
expansion.

Differential Pressure
Measures the difference between two pressures.
Gauges

The measuring element is formed by two diaphragms, acting

on the same movement.
In this way the pointer
senses only the difference
between the two pressures

Smart Differential Pressure

Transmitter
Capable of measuring differential pressure (that is, the

difference between a high pressure input and a low pressure

input) and therefore called DP transmitters or DP cells.
The DP transmitter consists of:
Body containing display, electronic module & power
module.
Manifold with isolation, bypass & vent valves.
The transducer (DP cell) inserted in a pressure capsule .
A pressure capsule has to be used to obtain maximum
sensitivity.
A pressure capsule has a sensitivity range that closely
matches the anticipated pressure of the measured fluid.

Differential Pressure
Transmitter

Differential Pressure
Transmitter

Transmitter Functional Block

Diagram

Three Valve Manifold

If the process pressure is accidentally applied to only

one side of the DP capsule during installation or removal
of the DP cell from service, over ranging of the capsule
would occur and the capsule could be damaged causing
erroneous indications.
A three-valve manifold is a device that is used to ensure
that the capsule will not be over-ranged during bringing
the transmitter in/out of the service.
Allows isolation of the transmitter from the process loop.
Consists of two block valves - high pressure and low
pressure block valve - and an equalizing valve.
During normal operation, the equalizing valve is closed
and the two block valves are open.

Three Valve Manifold

Three Valve Manifold

Electronic Pressure
Sensors

Pressure can be converted to some intermediate form,

such as displacement, the sensor then converts this
displacement into an electrical output such as voltage,
frequency or current.
Most electronic pressure sensors employ capacitive,
differential transformer, force balance, photoelectric,
piezoelectric, potentiometric, resistive, strain gauge, or
thermoelectric means of measurement.

Potentiometric-type Sensor

Piezoelectric-type Sensor

Class of crystals, called piezoelectric, produce an electrical

signal when they are mechanically deformed.
The voltage level of the signal is proportional to the amount of
deformation.
The crystal is mechanically attached to a metal diaphragm.
One side of the diaphragm is connected to the process fluid to
sense pressure, and a mechanical linkage connects the
diaphragm to the crystal.
The output voltage signal from the crystal is very small (normally
in the microvolt range), so you must use a high-input impedance
amplifier.

Piezoelectric-type Sensor

Capacitance-type Sensor

In a capacitance-type pressure sensor, the process

pressure is applied to a diaphragm.
The diaphragm is exposed to the process pressure on
one side and a reference pressure on the other.
The deflection of the diaphragm causes a change in the
distance between the metal plates, so, the capacitance
changed.
The change in capacitance is detected by a bridge circuit
& converted into either a direct current or a voltage signal.

Capacitance-type Sensor

Strain Gauges

Strain gauge sensors are used for high and low pressure
applications, and can measure absolute or differential pressure.
The strain gauge is a device that can be affixed to the surface of
an object to detect the force applied to the object.
One form of the strain gauge is a metal wire of very small
diameter that is attached to the surface of a device being
monitored.
When force is applied the overall length of the wire tends to
increase while the cross-sectional area decreases.
For a metal, the electrical resistance will increase as the length of
the metal increases or as the cross sectional diameter decreases.
Very small pressure changes can be detected if there are a large
number of wire runs.

Strain Gauges

Strain Gauges

Variable Reluctance
Sensor
Usually used for low differential pressure measurements.
The operating principle of the VRP transducer is based on the
reluctance of the L1 and L2 coils is directly proportional to the length
of the flux path and inversely proportional to its permeability.

Each electromagnetic circuit associated with coil L 1 and coil L2

contains two reluctance elements, iron and air-gap paths.
When a permeable material such as iron is introduced into the flux
field of the coil, the lines of magnetic flux are redirected and
concentrated in the permeable material.
As a differential pressure is applied, the diaphragm deflects, one side
decreasing and the other increasing, and the air gap reluctances in
the electromagnetic circuits change proportionally to the differential
pressure applied.

Variable Reluctance
Sensor

Pressure Measurement
Error

Over-Pressure: All of the pressure gauges are designed

to operate over a rated pressure range.
If a pressure gauge is over ranged, pressure is applied to
the point where it can no longer return to its original
shape, thus the indication would return to some value
greater than the original.
Diaphragms and bellows are usually the most sensitive
and fast-acting of all pressure gauges.
Bourdon tubes are very robust and can handle extremely
high pressures although, when exposed to over-pressure,
they become slightly distended and will read high.

Pressure Measurement
Error

Faulty Sensing Lines : When the pressure lines become

partially blocked, the dynamic response of the sensor is
naturally reduced and it will have a slow response to
change in pressure.
Depending on the severity of the blockage, the sensor
could even retain an incorrect zero or low reading.
Periodic draining and flushing of sensing lines is a must.
A cracked sensing line has the characteristic of
consistently low readings.

Pressure Measurement
Error
Over ranging Damage to the D/P Cell: The valve

manifolds are provided on DP cells to prevent overpressuring and aid in the removal of cells for
maintenance.
Loss of Loop Electrical Power : The output of the DP
transmitters will drop to zero with a loss of power supply.

Pressure Switches

The switch is a device that monitor the system & senses any change in the
concerned quantity, opens or closes an electrical circuit when a predetermined value is reached.
The pressure switch is a
device that will trip at the set
point, and remain tripped until
a fixed re-set point is reached,
at which point the switch will
return to its original operating position.
Pressure switch consists of
Electrical Contacts: the elements in the switch that electrically respond to
the media applied to the actuator.
Actuator: The member in the switch which receives the media and
ultimately strokes the electrical contacts to open or close at the
designated set point.

Pressure Switches

Switch configured to be SPST or SPDT.

The fluid medium determines the diaphragm material, and in
some cases, the type of switch that can be used.
We may need a pressure, vacuum or differential switch.
In a pressure switch, positive pressure pushes the diaphragm
In a vacuum switch, negative pressure pulls the diaphragm.
In a differential switch, both sides of the switch housing are
ported to two pressure sources, and the diaphragm responds
to the resulting net force.
The switch healthy status is the status that the switch gives no
alarm or trip signal and configured to be N.O. or N.C.
according to the application.

Diaphragm Sensing Element

Switch

Many pressure switches are configured simply by coupling

a diaphragm to the actuator of a snap switch.
In operation, force against the diaphragm is transferred to
a guide disk, which depresses the actuator of a snap
switch.
To depress the actuator, the guide disk must also push
against the opposing force of a spring.
The compression of the spring can be modified by an
adjustment screw, and this permits fine calibration of the
switch set point.

Snap Action Switch

Snap Action Switch

Diaphragm Sensing Element

Switch

Piston Sensing Element

Combines a durable piston sensing element

Switch

with a reliable switch mechanism.

The switch is capable of extremely high
pressure ratings.