HMEF 5113

STATISTICS FOR EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

Topic 5
T-Test
Facilitator
DR. SOON SENG THAH

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Objectives
Upon completion of this topic, you should be able to:
Explain the meaning of t-test and its use in
hypothesis testing;
Demonstrate use of the t-test for independent
means;
Identify the assumptions for using the t-test; and
Demonstrate the use of the t-test for dependent
means.

Introduction

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What is the t-test?

The t-test was developed by the statistician named W.S.

Gossett (1878-1937).
His pen name was student and hence the term students ttest was also used. The conceptual basis of t-test was first
published in the scientific journal, Biometrika in 1908.
The t-test is a statistical tool used to infer differences
between two samples based on the mean and standard
deviation.
The two samples can be independent or dependent of
each other.
When the 2 samples are independent of each other, we
use the Independent Samples t-test.
When the 2 samples are dependent of each other or are
paired, we use the Dependent Samples or Paired
Samples t-test.

Introduction

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Examples: Independent Samples t-test

Boys versus Girls Achievement where the 2 samples
are independent of each other
E.g. Variable Name in SPSS: Gender
Value Labels in SPSS: 1= Boys
2= Girls
Dependent or Paired Samples t-test
Pretest and Posttest Achievement Test Scores
where the 2 samples are dependent of each other
or are paired
E.g. Variable Names (2 different or separate variable
names) in SPSS:
Same group of
Variable 1: Pretest
students taking
Variable 2: Posttest
pretest and posttest
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Hypothesis Testing in T-Test

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How do we go about establishing whether the differences in the

two means are statistically significant or due to chance?

You begin by formulating a hypothesis about the difference.

Using the null hypothesis, you begin testing the significance by
saying:
"There is no difference in the score obtained in science between
subjects in the Discovery group and the Lecture group.
Assuming the mean score of the Discovery Group is 43.0 and the
mean score of the Lecture Group is 38.0.
More commonly the null hypothesis may be stated as follows:
Ho : 1 = 2 which translates into 43.0 = 38.0
Ho : 1 - 2 = 0 which translate into 43.0 - 38.0 = 0
If you reject the null hypothesis, it means that the difference
between the two means has statistical significance.
If you do not reject the null hypothesis, it means that the
difference between the two means is NOT statistically significant
and this difference is due to chance.

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T-Test for Independent Means/Samples

The t-test is a powerful statistic that enables you to determine
that the differences obtained between two groups are
statistically significant.
When two groups are independent of each other; it means
that the sample drawn came from two populations.
This means that the two groups are independent or they belong
to "unpaired" groups and "unpooled groups.
Example:
You conducted a study to determine the spatial reasoning
ability of 70 ten-year old children in Malaysia. The sample
consisted of 35 males and 35 females.
The sample of 35 males was drawn from the population of
ten-year old males in Malaysia and the sample of 35 females
was drawn from the population of ten-year old females in
Malaysia.
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T-Test for Independent Means/Samples

This can be represented in a diagram as follows:

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T-Test for Independent Means/Samples

When working on our thesis, we can formulate the following
research question and hypothesis:
Research Question: "Is there a significant difference in
spatial reasoning between male and female ten-year old
children?
Null Hypothesis or Ho: "There is no significant difference
in spatial reasoning between male and female ten-year old
children."

T-Test for Independent Means/Samples

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Assumptions that must be observed when using the t-test

Scale of measurement/Level of measurement

The data that you collect for the dependent variable should be
based on a scale that is continuous (interval and ratio) or ordinal.
In SPSS this type of measurement is called scale (e.g. test scores)
or ordinal (e.g. rating scale) under Measure. Rating scale can
also be considered as an interval scale.
Random sampling
The sample of subjects should be randomly selected from the
population of interest.
Normality
The data came from a distribution that has one of those nice bellshaped curves known as normal distribution.
Sample size
Sample size is reasonably large
Typically greater or equal to 30 cases in each group
Groups are close to equal in size
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T-Test for Independent Means/Samples

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[Cont.] Assumptions that must be observed when using

the t-test
Homogeneity of Variance /Equality of variance
Are the standard deviations of the two groups pretty close to
equal?
The most common test for this is Levene's test of homogeneity
of variance.
We begin by putting forward the null hypothesis as follows:

"There are no significant differences between the variances of

the two groups" and you set the significance level at .05.

If the Levene statistic is significant, i.e less than .05 level (p <
.05), then you conclude that the variances are unequal or
there are significant differences. [The unequal variances is
used or Equal variances not assumed as in the SPSS output is
used.]
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T-Test for Independent Means/Samples

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Assumptions that must be observed when using the t-test

Homogeneity of Variance /Equality of variance

If the Levene statistic is not significant, i.e. more than .05
level (p > .05), then you conclude that the variances are
equal. [The equal variances assumed as in the SPSS output
is used.]

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T-Test for Independent Means/Samples

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Using SPSS to run independent samples t-test

Step 1: Select the Analyze menu

Step 2: Click on Compare Means and then Independent
Samples T Test ....to open the Independent Samples T Test
dialogue box.
Step 3: Select the test variable(s). [i.e. Posttest] and then click
the arrow button to move the variables into the Test
Variables(s): box
Step 4: Select the grouping variables [i.e. Gender] and click the
arrow button to move the variable into the Grouping Variable:
box
Step 5: Click Define Groups ....command pushbutton to open the
Define Groups sub-dialogue box
Step 6: In the Group 1: box, type the lowest value for the variable
[i.e. 1 for Male']. Enter the second value for the variables [i.e. 2
for Female'] in the Group 2: box
Step 7: Click Continue and then OK
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Interpretation of T-Test for Independent Samples

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Std. Error of
Mean=14.251 /
51 = 1.995
Mean Differrence =
60.37 59.73 =
0.64

t=0.638 / 2.981 =
0.214

Std. Error Difference =

(1.9952

2.2222)

= 2.98

df = 100 - 2 = 98
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SPSS Output

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Using two groups of students via the Gender variable (male

and female), is there a real difference in the achievement of
male as compared to female students?

1. Check to see whether output meets the "Homogeneity of

Variance" assumption.
2. Use the Levene's Test and set alpha at 0.05.
3. The alpha obtained is 0.442 which is more than (>) 0.05 and
you conclude that the variances are equal.
4. Thus, you have not violated the "Homogeneity of Variance"
assumption, meaning there is homogeneity in the variances.
Therefore, you use the Equal Variances Assumed computations.

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A simple explanation on the concept of Degree of

Freedom - df as computed in t-test
Cohen & Holliday (1996) has this very easy-to-understand
explanation of degrees of freedom:
Suppose we have to select any five numbers. We have complete freedom
of choice as to what the numbers are. So, we have five degrees of
freedom. Suppose however we are then told that the five numbers must
have a total value of 25. We will have complete freedom of choice to select
four numbers but the fifth will be dependent on the other four. Lets say
that the first four numbers we select 7, 8, 9, and 10, which total 34, then if
the total value of the five numbers is to be 25, the fifth number must be
9.
7 + 8 + 9 + 10 9 = 25
A restriction has been placed on one of the observations; only four are free
to vary; the fifth has lost its freedom. In our example, the df = 4, that is N
1 = 5 1 = 4.

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SPSS Output
Conclusion: There is no significant difference between male and
female students in the English posttest (p > 0.05).
If you have a null hypothesis which states that:

There is no significant difference between male and female

students in the English posttest.
Then, you do not reject the null hypothesis because there is
indeed no significant difference between male and female
students achievement in the posttest. (You have proven this
with solid empirical evidence!)
This is indicated by the p-value greater than 0.05. We represent
this by stating (p > 0.05).
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SPSS Output
The t-value tells how far away from 0, in terms of the number of standard
errors, the observed difference between the two sample means falls.
The "t" value is obtained by dividing the Mean difference (0.638) by the Std.
Error (2.981) which is equal to 0.214
If the p-value as shown in the Sig (2 tailed) column is smaller than your
chosen alpha level (p=.05), you reject the null hypothesis and argue that there
is a real difference between the populations. In other words, we can conclude,
that the observed difference between the samples is statistically significant (i.e.
p < .05).
However, in our example, the Sig (2-tailed) is larger than the chosen alpha
level (p=.05). In this case, we conclude that the observed difference between
the samples (male and female) is not statistically significant (i.e. p > .05).
Therefore, we do not reject the null hypothesis or the null hypothesis is true
(null hypothesis states there is no difference in the English posttest between
male and female students). So, despite the male students scoring a mean of
60.37 which is higher than the female students, this is not significantly
higher than the female students mean of 59.73.
Mean difference - this is the difference between the means (labelled "Mean
Difference"); i.e. 60.37 59.73 = 0.64
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T-test For Dependent Means or Paired Samples t-test

The dependent means t-test or the paired samples t-test
or the repeated measures t-test is used when you have data
from only one group of subjects.
Each subject obtains two scores under different conditions.
For example, when you give a pretest (O1) and after a particular
treatment or intervention, you give the same subjects a posttest
(O2).
The same subjects obtain a score on the pretest and, after
some intervention or treatment (X) obtain a score on the
posttest.
Your objective is to determine whether the difference between
the means for the two sets of scores is the same or different.

Experimental Group
Control Group

Pretest
O1
O3

Treatment
X
-

Posttest
O2
O4

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T-test For Dependent Means or Paired Samples t-test

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Examples of research questions used for paired

samples t-test:

Is there a significant difference in pretest and posttest

scores in social studies for subjects in the discovery method
group?
Does the Virtual Learning Environment under the
1BestariNet initiative result in better student achievement in
the mathematics subject?

Examples of research hypotheses used for paired

samples t-test:

Is there a significant difference in pretest and posttest

scores in social studies for subjects in the discovery method
group?
Students using Virtual Learning Environment perform
significantly better in their posttest as compared to their
pretest.

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T-test For Dependent Means or Paired Samples t-test

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Using SPSS, run the paired samples t-test

Step 1: Select the Analyze menu.

Step 2: Click Compare Means and then Paired-Samples T
Test ... to open the Paired-Sample T Test dialogue box.
Step 3: Select the test variable(s). [i.e. Pretest and
Posttest] and then click the arrow button to move the
variables into the Paired Variables: box
Step 4: Click on Continue and then OK.

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Interpretation of T-Test for Paired Samples

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Std. Error of Mean

= 17.367 /
100 = 1.737

df = 100 1
= 99
Mean Differrence =
50.05 60.06 =
- 10.01

Std. Error Mean =

10.679 / (100 = 1.068

t = -10.010 / 1.068
= - 9.373

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T-test For Dependent Means or Paired Samples t-test

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Interpretation of the output generated by SPSS

The Paired Samples Statistics table above shows the mean values
on the English pretest and posttest. The posttest mean is higher
(60.06) than the pretest mean (50.05) indicating improved
performance in English test after the treatment. The standard
deviation for the pretest is 17.37 and this is slightly higher than the
standard deviation for the posttest which is 14.83.
The question remains: Is this mean difference large enough to
convince us that there is a significant difference in the performance
of English, a consequence of using innovative techniques?
The t-value: This "t" value tells you how far away from 0, in terms
of the number of standard errors, the observed difference
between the two sample means falls. The "t" value is obtained by
dividing the Mean difference ( - 10.010) by the Std. Error (1.068)
which is equal to 9.373.

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T-test For Dependent Means or Paired Samples t-test

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Interpretation of the output generated by SPSS

p-value: The p-value shown in the "Sig (2 tailed) column is smaller

than the chosen alpha level (0.05) and so you Reject the null
hypothesis and argue that there is a significant difference between
the pretest and posttest. In other words, we can conclude, that the
observed difference between the two means is statistically
significant.
Mean difference: This is the difference between the means 50.05
60.06 = 10.010

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What next?

Topic 6: Oneway ANOVA

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