Principles of

Environmental
Engineering
and Science
Second Edition

Macken%ie L. Davis
Michigan State University-East Lansing

Susan J. Masten
Michigan State University-East Lansing, MI
McMaster University-Hamilton, ON

fB McGraw-Hili
t:M Higher Education
Boston Burr Ridge, IL Dubuque, IA New York San Francisco SI. Louis
Bangkok Bogot8. Caracas Kuala Lumpur Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City
Milan Montreal New Delhi Santiago Seoul Singapore Sydney Taipei Toronto
Contents

Preface xi
Chapter Review 23

Acknowledgments XIII
Problems 24

Aboutthe Authors XIV

Discussion Questions 25

About the Cover Artist xv

References 29

1 Introduction I
2 Chemistry 31

1-1 WHAT IS ENVJRONMENTAL SCIENCE? 2

Case Study: To MTBE 01' Not tu MTBE? 32

Natural Scienee 2
2-1 INTRODUCTION 32

Environmental Science 2
2-2 BASIC CHEMICAL CONCEPTS 33

Quamitative Environmental Seience 2

Atoms, Elements, and the Periodie Table 33

1-2 WHAT IS ENVIRONMENTAL

Chemical Bonds and Intermolecular Forces 34

ENGINEERING? 3
The Mole, Molar Units, and Aetivity Units 36

Engineering 3
Chemical Reaetions and Stoiehiometry 37

Environmental Engineering 3
Chemieal Equilibrium 44

1-3 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 3

Reaetion Kinetics 56

Overview 3
2-3 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 61

Hydrology 4
Allwnes, Alkenes, and Alkynes 62

Water Treatment 4
Aryl (Aromatic) Compounds 63

Wastewater Treatment 8
Funetional Graups and Classes of Compounds 63

Air Pollution Control 9

2-4 WATER CHEMISTRY 64

Solid emd Hazardous Waste 9

Physical Properties of Water 64

1-4 HOW ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERS

States of Solution Impurities 65

AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENTISTS

Concentration Units in Aqueous Solutions

WORK TOGETHER 10
01' Suspensions 66

1-5 INTRODUCTION TO PRINCIPLES OF

Buffers 69

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
2-5 SOlL CHEMTSTRY 75

AND SCIENCE 11
2-6 ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY 76

Where Do We Start? 11
Fundamentals (~r Gases 78

A Short Outline ofThis Book 11

Chapter Review 80

1-6 ENVIRONMENTf\L SYSTEMS OVERVIEW 12

Problems 81

Systems as Such 12
Discussion Questions 86

Water Resource Management System 13

References 86

Air Resource Managemel1/ System 17

Solid Waste Management [7

Multimedia Systems 19
3 Biology
89
Sustainability [9
Case Study: Poison Warer?
90

1-7 ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION

3-1 INTRODUCTION
91

AND REGULATION 19
3-2 CHEMTCAL COMPOSITION OF LIFE 91

Acts, La ws, ell1d Regulations [9

Carbohydrates 91

1-8 ENVIRONMENTAL ETH[CS 22

Nuc/eie Acids 93

Case I: To Add 01' Nut 10 Add 22

Proteins 96

Case 2: You Can 't Do Everything At Once 23

Lipids 96

iv
 Contenl; I v

:M) THE CELL 98 Reoclors 149

Prokaryoles and Eukaryoles 100 Reaelor Analysis 150
Cell Membrane 101 4-4 ENERGY BALANCES 158
Ce/! Organelles of Eukaryoles 103 FirSI Law ofThermodynamics 158
Cell Organelles of Plal11 Cells 109 Fundamentals 159
Ce/! Organelles (!f Prokaryoles 109 Second Law ofThermodynamics 166
23 3-4 ENERGY AND METABOLlSM 109 Chapter Review 168
24 Problems 169
,­
-)
Cells, MalIei; and Energy 110
Discussion Questions 176
3-5 CELLULAR REPRODUCTION IJ2
29 References 177
The Cell Cycle 1/2
Asexual Reproduclion IJ4
31 Sexual Reproduetion 1/4
5 Ecosystems 179
32 3-6 DIVERSITY OF L1VING THINGS 1/5
Case Sludy: DDT-Curse 01' Blessing? 180
'J
'- 3-1 PROKARYOTES 116
117
5-1 INTRODUCTION 18J
Archaea
Ecosyslems 181
Baeleria 117
5-2 HUMAN INFLUENCES ON
3-8 PROTISTS 120
ECOSYSTEMS 181
Protozoa 120
Algae 122 5-3 ENERGY AND MASS FLOW 182
Slime Molds and Water Molds 125 Bioaccumulation 187
3-9 FUNGI 125 5-4 NUTRIENT CYCLES 189
Chytridiomycola 125 Carbon Cyc/e 189
Zygomycola 125 Nilrogen Cyc/e 190
Aseomycota 125 Phosphorus Cyc/e 193
Basidiomyeola 126 Sulfur Cyc/e 194
Deuleromyceta 126 5-5 POPULATION DYNAMICS 195
3-10 VIRUSES 127 BaClerial Population Growlh 195
Animal Populalion Dynamics 197
3-11 MICROBIAL DISEASE 128
Human Populalion Dynan,ies 202
3-12 MICROBIAL TRANSFORMATIONS 129
.16 5-6 LAKES: AN EXAMPLE OF MASS AND
Chapter Review 130
,9 ENERGY CYCLING IN AN ECOSYSTEM 205
Discussion Questions 131
Slratifieatio/1 anel Tumover i/1 Deep Lakes 206
5 References 132
Biologieal Zones 207
6
Lake ProduClivily 208
4 Materials and Energy EUlrophicalion 212
()
1
Balances J33 5-1 ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS TO
PROTECT ECOSYSTEMS 2J4
:6 4-1 INTRODUCTION 134
Chapter Review 215
b 4-2 UNIFYING THEORIES 134
Problems 216
Conservation of MaIleI' 134
Discussion Questions 219
Conservalion of Energy 134
References 219
Conservalion 01 Maller and Energy 134
4-3 MATERIALS BALANCES 135
Fundamenlais 135 6 Risk Perception, Assessment,
Time os a FaClor 136 and Management 221
More Complex Syslems 137
Case Sludy: No Swimming! 222
Efficiency 140
The S,a,e ofMixing 143 6-1 INTRODUCTION 222
lncluding Reaetions 145 6-2 RISK PERCEPTION 222
vi I
Contents

6-3 RISK ASSESSMENT 224

Environmen/allmpacts 290

Data Collection and Evaluation 225

Terrain Effec/s 299

Toxicity Assessmen/ 225

Suslainable Energy Sources 2<)9

Exposure Assessl11en/ 231

Energy Conservo/ion 306

Risk Characlerization 237

8-3
MINERAL RESOURCES 310

6-4 RISK MANAGEMENT 238

Rese,-ves 310

Chapter Review 238

Environmentalll11pacts 3J J

Problems 239
Resource COl1serva/ion 312

Discussion Questions 241

8-4
SOlL RESOURCES 3J5

References 241
El1.ergy Storage 315

Plant Production 315

7 Hydrology 243
8-5
PARAMETERS OF SOlL SUSTAINABILITY 3 I6

Case Study: The Dying ofa Sea 244

Nutrient Cycling 316

7-1 FUNDAMENTALS OF HYDROLOGY 246

Soil Acidit)' 318

The Hydrological Cycle 246

Soil Salinity 318

Tex/ure and Structure 319

7-2 MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION,

EVAPORATION, INFILTRATION, AND

8-6
SOlL CONSERVATION 3\9

STREAMFLOW 254
SoU Man.agement 319

Precipilation 254
SoU Erosion 320

Evaporation 257
Chapter Review 326

Infiltralion 260
Problems 326

Streamfiow 262
Discussion Questions 328

References 328

7-3 GROUNDWATER HYDROLOGY 264

Aquifers 265

7-4 GROUNDWATER FLOW 269

9
Water Quality

7-5 WELL HYDRAULICS 273

Management 331

Definition ofTerms 273

Case Swdy: There She Slows! 332

Cone of Depression 275

9-1
INTRODUCTION 334

7-6 SURFACE WATER AND GROUNDWATER

9-2
WATER POLLUTANTS

AS A WATER SUPPLY 280

AND THEIR SOURCES 335

7-7 DEPLETION OF GROUNDWATER

Point Sources 335

AND SURFACE WATER 28\

Nonpoint Sources 335

Water Use 28\

Oxygen-Demanding Material 335

Land Subsidence 28J

Nutrients 336

Chapter Review 283

Pathogenic Organisms 338

Problems 284
Suspended Solids 338

Discussion Questions 286

Salts 339

References 286
Pesticides 339

Pharl11aceuticals and Personal Care Produc/s 341

8
Sustainable Energy, Enducrin.e-Disrupting Chel11icals
342

Other Organic Chemicals 343

Mineral and Soil Resources 289

Arsenic 343

Case Study: A New Precious Metal-Copper! 290

Toxic Metals 344

8-1 INTRODUCTION 290

Heat 345

Sustainable Development 290

Nanopanicles 346

8-2 ENERGY RESOURCES 291

9-3
WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT

Coal Fonnation 29J

IN RIVERS 346

Petroleum Formation 292

Effect of Oxygen-Demanding H0stes

Fossil Fuel Reserves 293

on Rivers 347

Nuclear Energy 295

Biochemical Oxygen Demand
347

 Contents I vii

91'; Laboratory Measurement of Biochemical Chlorine Reactions in Water 440

tl9 Oxygen Demand 352 Chlorine Dioxide 441
99 Additional Notes on Biochemical Ozonation 441
6 Oxygen Denwnd 355 Vltroviolet Radiation 442
10 Nitrogen Oxidation 356 1<)-7 OTHER TREATMENT PROCESSES
10 DOSag Cun1e 357 FOR DRINKING WATER 442
I1 Effect ofNutrients Oll Water Qualit)' Membrane Processes 442
12 in Rivers 373 Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs) 443
:1:' 9'-4 WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT Carbon Adsorption 443
5 IN LAKES 374 Aeration 443
)5 Control of Phosphorus in Lakes 374 10-8 WATER PLANT RESIDUALS
lli Acidification of Lakes 378 MANAGEMENT 444
16 9-5 WATER QUALITY IN ESTUARIES 385 Mass-Balance Analysis 445
8 9-6 WATER QUALITY IN OCEANS 386 Sludge Treatment 446
Vltimate Disposal 451
9-7 GROUNDWATER QUALITY 389
9 Contaminant Migration in Groundwaters 389 Chapter Review 451
()
Chapter Review 393 Problems 452
9 Problems 394 Discussion Questions 454
() References 455
Discussion Questions 399
6 References 399
.6
11 Wastewater Treatment 457
10 Water Treatment 403 Case Study: Cuyahoga River Burning 458
Case Study: Walkerton-The Town Where 11-1 INTRODUCTION 459
Kids Died jrom E. coli 404 Wastewater Treatment Perspective 459
10-1 INTRODUCTION 405 11-2 CHARACTERISTICS OF DOMESTIC
Water Qualiry 407 WASTEWATER 460
Physical Charoueristics 408 Physical Characteristics 460
Chemical Characteristics 408 Chemical Characteristics 460
Microhiological Characteristics 408 Characteristics of lndustrial Wastewater 461
Radiological Charaeteristics 409 11-3 WASTEWATER TREATMENT
U.S. Water Quality Standards 409 STANDARDS 463
Water Classification and Treatment Systems 410 Pretreatment of lndustrial Wastes 464
10-2 RAPID MIXING. FLOCCULATION. 11-4 ON-SITE DISPOSAL SYSTEMS 465
AND COAGULATION 412 Alternative On-Site Treatment
Col/oid Stability and Destabilization 413 anel Disposal Systems with Water 465
Coagulants 413 On-Site Treatment Clnd Disposal Systems
Mixing and Floeculation 416 for Vnfavorable Site Conditions 469
10-3 SOFTENING 419 Other On-Site Treatment
Hardness 419 and Disposal Options 471
Lime-Soda Softening 425 Alternative On-Site Treatment-Dispusal
Ion-Exchange Softening 428 Systems Without Water 471
10-4 SEDIMENTATION 430 11-5 MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER
Overview 430 TREATMENT SYSTEMS 473
Determination of Sel/ling Velociry (v s) 431 11-6 UNIT OPERATIONS
Determination of Overflow Rate (vo) 433 OF PRETREATM ENT 474
10-5 FILTRATION 434 Bar Rocks 474
10-6 DISINFECTION 437 Grit Chambers 474
Disinfection Kineties 438 Macerators 476
Disinfectants and Disinfection By-Products 438 Equalization 476
viii I Contents

11-7 PRIMARY TREATMENT 480 12-4 EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTANTS 529

11-8 UNIT PROCESSES OF SECONDARY Effects on Materials 529
TREATMENT 481 Effects on Vegetation :HO
Overview 48] Effeets on Health 531
Role ofMicroorganisms 481 12-5 ORIGIN AND FATE OF AIR
Population Dynamics 482 POLLUTANTS 536
AClivated Sludge 483 Carbon Monoxide 536
Trickling Filters 495 Hazardous Air Pol/utants (HA Ps) 537
Oxidation Ponds 497 Lead 537
Rotating Biological Contactors 499 Nitrogen Dioxide 537
11-9 DISINFECTION 500 Photoehemieal Oxidants 5JR
11-10 ADVANCED WASTEWATER Sulfur Oxides 5JX
TREATMENT 500 Partieulates 540
Filtration 500 12-6 MICRO AND MACRO AIR POLLUTION 540
Carbon Adsorption 501 Indoor Air Pol/ution 540
Phosphorus Removal 501 Acid Rain 544
Nitrogen Control 502 Ozone Depletion 546
11-11 LAND TREATMENT FOR Global Warming 547
SUSTAINABILITY 503 12-7 AIR POLLUTION METEOROLOGY 555
Slow Rate 505 The Atnwspherie Engine 555
Overland Flow 505 Turbulence 556
Rapid Injiltration 505 Stability 557
11-12 SLUDGE TREATMENT 505 Terrain Effeets 559
Sources and Characteristies 12-8 ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSION 561
of Various Sludges 506 Faetors Affecting Dispersion
Solids Compwations 506 ofAir Pol/ulants 561
Sludge Treatment Processes 508 Dispersion Modeling 562
11-13 SLUDGE DISPOSAL 515 12-9 INDOOR AIR QUALITY MODEL 568
Ultinwte Disposal 515 12-10 AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
Land Spreading 515 OF STATIONARY SOURCES 571
Landjilling 515 Gaseous Pol/utants 571
Dedicated Land Disposal (DLD) 515 Flue Gas Desulfurization 574
Utilization 515 Control Technologiesfor Nitrogen Oxides 575
Sludge Disposal Regulations 515 Particulale Pollutanls 576
Chapter Review 516 Control Teehnologies for Mercury 579
Problems 5]7 12-11 AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
Discussion Questions 521 OF MOBILE SOURCES 579
Rel'erences 521 Engine Fundamentals 579
Control ofAutomobile Emissions 58!
12-12 WASTE MINIMIZATION
12 Air Pollution 523 FOR SUSTAINABILITY 582
Case Study: The Fog 524 Chapter Review 583
12-1 INTRODUCTION 525 Problems 584
Air Pollution Perspective 525 Discussion Questions 585
12-2 FUNDAMENTALS 525 References 586
Pressure Relationships
and Units of Measure 525 13 Solid Waste Engineering 589
Relativity 525 Case Study: Too Mueh. Waste, Tao Lillle Spaee 590
Adiabatic Expansion and Compression 525 13-1 INTRODUCTION 591
12-3 AIR POLLUTION STANDARDS 526 Magnitude of the Problem 592
 Contents I ix
.'

529 13-2 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLID WASTE 593 14-5 HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT 641
529 Waste Minimization 641
13-3 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT 596
530 Waste Exchange 644
531
13-4 SOLID WASTE COLLECTION 596
Recycling 644
13-5 WASTE AS RESOURCE 597
Background and Perspective 597
14-6 TREATMENT TECHNOLOG IES 645
536 Biological Treatment 645
Green Chemistry and Green Engineering 598
536 Chemical Treatment 647
Recycling 598
537 Physical/Chemical Treatment 650
Composting 602
537 Incineration 655
Source Reduction 603
537 I StaIJi/ization-Solidification 662
538 13-6 SOLID WASTE REDUCTION 604
Combustion Processes 604 14-7 LAND DISPOSAL 662
538 I Types of lncinerators 606
Deep Weil InjeClion 662
540
Land Treatment 663
Public Health and Environmentallssues 608
540 The Secure Landfill 663
Other Thermal Treatment Processes 609
540
13-7 DISPOSAL BY SANITARY LANDFILL 609
14-8 GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION
544
AND REMEDIATION 667
546 Site Selection 610
The Process of Contamination 667
547 Operation 611
EPA 's Groul1dwater Remediation Procedure 667
Environmental COllsiderations 613
613 Mitigation and Treatmenl 669
Leachate
Chapter Review 676
Methalle ami Other Gas Production 617
Problems 677
Lalldfill Design 620
Discussion Questions 682
Landfill CIosure 62J
References 682
Chapter Review 621
Problems 622
Discussion Questions 624 15 Noise Pollution 685
References 624
15-1 INTRODUCTION 686
Properties ofSound Waves 687
68 14 Hazardous Waste
Sound Power and Illtensity 688
Management 627
Levels and Ihe Decihel 689
71
Case Study: Not a Good Time atthe Beach 628 Characterization of Noise 691
71
74 14-1 INTRODUCTION 628 15-2 EFFECTS OF NOISE ON PEOPLE 695
5 Dioxins and PCBs 628 The Hearing Mechanism 695
6 14-2 EPA'S HAZARDOUS WASTE Normal Hearing 698
9 DESIGNATION SYSTEM 630 Hearing Impairment 700
14-3 RCRA AND HSWA 631 Damage-Risk Criteria 702
"9 Congressional Actions 011 Hazardous Waste 631 Speech Inte1erence 702
9 Cradle-to-Grave COl!cept 631 Annoyance 703
Generator Requiremellts 633 Sieep Interference 704
I
Transporter Regulations 634 Effecis on Pe10rmance 705
Treatment, Storage, ond Disposal Acoustic Privacy 705
;3 Requiremel1ls 635 15-3 RATING SYSTEMS 706
Underground Siorage Tanks 637 Goals of a Noise-Rating System 706
14-4 CERCLA AND SARA 638 The LN Concept 706
The Supe/fund Law 638 The Leq Concept 707
The National Priority List 638 The Ldn Concept 708
The Hazard Ranking System 638 15-4 COMMUNITY NOISE SOURCES
The National COl1lingency Plan 639 AND CRITER1A 708
Liability 640 Transportation Noise 708
Supe/fund Amendments Other Internal Combustion Engines 709
and Reauthorization Act 640 Construction Noise 710
X I Contents

Zoning and Siring Considerarions 711 Aeute Effecrs 744

Levels ro Proreet Healrh and Welfare 712 Relarion ofDose ro Type ofAeute

15-5 TRANSMISSION OF SOUND

Radiation Syndrome 744

OUTDOORS
712 Delayed Effeers 745

Inverse Square lLlw 712 Generie Effecrs 747

Radiarion Fields ofaSound Souree 714 16-3 RADIATION STANDARDS 748

DireCliviry 714
16-4 RADIATION EXPOSURE 750

Airborne Transmission 715

Exrernal and Inrernal Radiarion Hazards 750

15-6 TRAFFIC NOISE PREDICTION 716 Natural Background 750

Lcq Prediction 716 X-Rays 751

Ldn Predieriol1 716 Radionuclides 752

15-7 NOISE CONTROL 717 Nuclear Reaeror Operarions 752

Souree-Parh-Reeeiver Coneepr 717

RadioaClive Wasres 753

Conrra! 0/ Noise Souree by Design 717 16-5 RADIATION PROTECTION 753

Noise Conrral in rhe Transmission Path 719 Reduerion 0/ Exrernal Radiarion Hazards 753

Conrral ofNoise Souree by Redress 721 Reduerion of Inrernal Radiarion Hazards 757

Prareer rhe Receiver 721

16-6 RADlOACTIVE WASTE 758

Chapter Review 722

Types of Wasre 758

Problems 723
Managemenr of High-Level
Discussion Questions 726
RadioaClive Wasre 759

References 727
Wasre Isolarion Pilor Planr 760

Managemenr of Law-Level

16 lonizing Radiation
729

Radioaerive Wasre 760

Lang-Term Managemenr and Containmenr 763

16-1 FUNDAMENTALS
730 Chapter Review 765

Aromic Srrueture 730

Problems 766

Radioaerivily and Radiarion 731

Discussion Questions 767

Radioacrive Decay 733

References 767

Radioimropes 736

Fission 737

The Produerion of X-Rays 738 Appendix

Radiarion Dose 740

A Propenies of Air. Water, and

16-2 BIOLOGlCAL EFFECTS OF

Selected Chemieals 769

IONIZING RADIATION
742
Credits 775

Sequenria! Pallern of Bi%gical Effeers 742

Dererminanrs of Biologieat Effeets 742 Index 777