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Ahmed et al.
Pre-Eclampsia and Heart Disease
Pathophysiology of Pre-Eclampsia
The pathological hallmark of pre-eclampsia is a failure in the
vascular remodeling of the maternal spiral arteries, resulting
in hypoperfusion of the placenta. This results in the release
of various factors, such as inammatory cytokines and
antiangiogenic proteins (e.g., soluble vascular endothelial
growth factor-1, soluble endoglin) (6,7), which cause systemic endothelial dysfunction, creating an imbalance in the
secretion of endothelin and thromboxane leading to vasoconstriction. This increases lumen pressure, resulting in
systemic hypertension. Moreover, reduced perfusion to
different organ systems gives rise to the classical symptoms
and signs of pre-eclampsia: hypertension, proteinuria,
edema, headache, scotomata, reduced glomerular ltration
rate, and fetal growth restriction (4,8).
Increased Cardiovascular Risk Factors
Following Pre-Eclampsia
Following a pregnancy complicated by pre-eclampsia, the
prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors further increases. It
has been demonstrated that early onset pre-eclampsia leads
to an increased risk of developing metabolic syndrome in
later life compared to late onset pre-eclampsia (9). The
CHAMPS (Cardiovascular Health After Maternal Placental
Syndromes) study demonstrated a 12-fold increased risk of
CVD with a history of pre-eclampsia and metabolic syndrome compared to women with neither (hazard ratio [HR]:
11.7; 95% condence interval [CI]: 4.9 to 28.3) (10). It is
Table 1
Ahmed et al.
Pre-Eclampsia and Heart Disease
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Studies Assessing the Risk of Different Manifestations of Vascular Disease Following a Pregnancy Complicated by
Hypertensive Disorder
Design
Population Size
Follow-Up
Period, yrs
Outcome
Measures
7,543
NA
1.47 (1.052.02)
23,000
NA
Hypertension
IHD
Angina
Venous thromboembolism
2.35
1.65
1.53
1.62
626,272
NA
129,920
1519
31,239
NA
CV events
Thromboembolic events
1,199
NA
Hypertension
Death from stroke
Population based
retrospective cohort study in
Ontario, Canada
NA
CVD
NA
Stroke
1.63 (1.022.62)
3,488,160
14.1
11.7
14.5
10.4
(mean)
Hypertension
IHD
Overall mortality
Stroke
3.7
2.16
1.49
1.81
Meta-analysis of 5 case
controls and 10 cohort
studies
2,375,751
NA
CV mortality
Stroke
Peripheral arterial disease
2.29 (1.733.04)
2.03 (1.542.67)
1.87 (0.943.73)
1.03 million
261
498
Mean: 27
IHD
(2.082.65)
(1.262.16)
(1.092.15)
(1.092.41)
(2.75.05)
(1.862.52)
(1.052.14)
(1.452.27)
2.4 (1.24.9)
(with hypertension during
pregnancy)
782,287
Median: 14.6
Hypertension
IHD
Stroke
6.73 (6.047.49)
1.75 (1.462.11)
1.66 (1.292.14)
(following severe
pre-eclampsia)
15,065
Mean: 16.5
Hypertension
3.1 (2.24.3)
4,782
19962004
Hypertension
Stroke
1.88 (1.492.39)
2.10 (1.193.71)
14,403
Median 37
1,132,064
339
NA
>3 yrs
10.7 (mean)
NA
Stroke
MI
Any CV event
14.5 (1.3165.1)
13.0 (4.66.3)
12.6 (2.466.3)
Hypertension
Metabolic syndrome
3.59 (2.485.20)
2.18 (1.343.52)
CVD
Stroke
Hypertension
2.28 (1.872.78)
1.76 (1.432.21)
3.13 (2.513.89)
CI condence interval; CV cardiovascular; CVD cardiovascular disease; IHD ischemic heart disease, MI myocardial infarction; NA not available.
2.14 (1.293.57)
9.54 (4.5020.26) if onset
of pre-eclampsia before
34 weeks gestation
1818
Ahmed et al.
Pre-Eclampsia and Heart Disease
CAD, MI, or congestive heart failure) with a history of preeclampsia (OR 2.29; 95% CI: 1.73 to 3.04) (20). Recently, a
large meta-analysis of 43 studies demonstrated that women
with a history of pre-eclampsia or eclampsia had an
increased risk of CVD (leading to either a clinical diagnosis
or a fatal outcome) (HR: 2.28; 95% CI: 1.87 to 2.78),
cerebrovascular disease (HR: 1.76; 95% CI: 1.43 to 2.21)
and of developing hypertension (HR: 3.13; 95% CI: 2.51 to
3.89) (21). Varying risk rates reported by different studies
may be due to the fact that studies were conducted in
different patient populations with different risk proles, and
at different time periods. Nevertheless, the risk of future
cardiovascular events following a pre-eclamptic event remains consistently high across all studies.
The Association of Pre-Eclampsia and
Future Risk of Chronic Hypertension
Several studies have demonstrated the association of preeclampsia with future development of chronic hypertension. A prospective cohort study of 815 women, with an
average 10 years follow-up, observed that hypertension in
later life was more common in those primigravid women
who had pre-eclampsia or eclampsia than in the control
group of women who were normotensive during pregnancy
(relative risk [RR]: 2.63; 95% CI: 1.66 to 4.17) (22).
Additionally, recurrent pre-eclampsia or pre-eclampsia
developing before 30 weeks of gestation has been observed
to further augment the risk of future hypertension (23).
A Danish registry based cohort, which followed up
women with severe pre-eclampsia for a median follow-up of
14.6 years after the affected pregnancy, observed an
increased risk of developing hypertension (HR: 6.73; 95%
CI: 6.04 to 7.49) (24). Similarly, the medical birth registry of
Norway and Nord-Trndelag Health Study demonstrated
an increase in the need for medication to manage hypertension (after a mean follow-up of 16.5 years) in those with
history of pre-eclampsia (OR: 3.1; 95% CI: 2.2 to 4.3) (25).
Analysis of patient data from phase 2 of the Family Blood
Pressure Programme Study demonstrated an increased risk
of suffering from chronic hypertension after 40 years of age
for women who experienced hypertension during pregnancy
compared to those who remained normotensive during
pregnancy (HR: 1.88; 95% CI: 1.49 to 2.39) (26).
The PREVFEM (Preeclampsia Risk EValuation in
FEMales) study evaluated the prevalence of various cardiovascular risk factors in women with a history of early onset
pre-eclampsia with a 10-year follow-up, and observed that
among these women there was an increased risk of hypertension (adjusted HR: 3.59; 95% CI: 2.48 to 5.20), and also
a higher prevalence of obesity (26.8% vs. 20.2%, p 0.04)
along with an increased waist circumference (86.5 cm vs.
83.2 cm, p 0.001) compared to the control group (27).
A recent systematic review and meta-analysis demonstrated that 1,885 of 3,658 (52%) of women with a history of
pre-eclampsia had hypertension after an average follow-up
cholesterol:apolipoprotein B ratio was decreased and triglyceride concentrations were increased in patients with preeclampsia. Serum soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule-1,
concentrations were markedly increased in pre-eclampsia.
Apolipoprotein B, free fatty acids, total cholesterol, and
LDL cholesterol were also increased. This study concluded
that the predominance of smaller, denser LDL, a potential
contributor to endothelial cell dysfunction, is a feature of
pre-eclampsia (36). These ndings are also supported by
those from a similar study conducted by Sattar et al. (37).
Abnormal lipid parameters may be a contributor to future
cardiovascular risk in these women.
In normal pregnancy, insulin sensitivity is decreased to
allow better transfer of glucose to the fetus. However, in preeclampsia insulin resistance is exaggerated for up to 3 months
post-partum. The risk of developing diabetes mellitus after a
pre-eclamptic pregnancy has been observed to increase
almost 2-fold (38,39).
The Association of Pre-Eclampsia and
Peripheral Vascular Disease or Stroke
There have been fewer studies examining the relationship
between pre-eclampsia and subsequent risk of peripheral
vascular disease or stroke. Initially, a report from the World
Health Organization identied gestational hypertension as a
risk factor for thromboembolic disease only in those women
who were taking the oral contraceptive pill (40). The Stroke
Prevention in Young Women Study suggested pre-eclampsia
as a risk factor for stroke. This study observed that, as
compared to normotensive pregnancies, women with history
of pre-eclampsia had an increased risk for death from stroke
(adjusted RR: 3.59; 95% CI: 1.04 to 12.4) (41,42). Similarly,
the increased risk for stroke in women who reported hypertension in pregnancy remained signicantly elevated, even
after controlling for traditional risk factors in the Family
Blood Pressure Programme study (HR: 2.10; 95% CI: 1.19
to 3.71) (26) and in the previously discussed Taiwanese
population based cohort study (HR: 14.5; 95% CI: 1.3 to
165.1) with up to 6.8 years of follow-up (13).
Risk of CVD in Children Born to
Pre-Eclamptic Women
Importantly, it has also been observed that pre-eclampsia has
implications for the childs cardiovascular health following
birth that persist throughout life. Several studies, and metaanalysis thereof, have observed that blood pressure among
such children is elevated by, on average, 2.39 mm Hg systolic and 1.35 mm Hg diastolic, with most participants in
these studies being under 20 years of age (range 4 to 30 years
of age) (2).
A further study demonstrated elevated pulmonary artery
pressure (by approximately 30%) and reduced ow-mediated
dilation (again by 30%) among children 13 (7 years) years
of age born after pre-eclamptic pregnancies (43). However,
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Pre-Eclampsia and Heart Disease
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