2.textile Dye Degradation Using Nano Zero Valent Iron - A Review

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Textile dye degradation using nano zero valent

iron: A review
Article in Journal of Environmental Management April 2016
DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2016.04.034
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Review
Textile dye degradation using nano zero valent iron: A review

Chandra Devi Raman, S. Kanmani*
Centre for Environmental Studies, Anna University, Chennai, 600 025, Tamil Nadu, India
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 18 December 2015
Received in revised form
9 April 2016
Accepted 12 April 2016
Water soluble unxed dyes and inorganic salts are the major pollutants in textile dyeing industry
wastewater. Existing treatment methods fail to degrade textile dyes and have limitations too. The
inadequate treatment of textile dyeing wastewater is a major concern when efuent is directly discharged into the nearby environment. Long term disposal threatens the environment, which needs
reclamation. This article reviews the current knowledge of nano zero valent iron (nZVI) technique in the
degradation of textile dyes. The application of nZVI on textile dye degradation is receiving great attention
in the recent years because nZVI particles are highly reactive towards the pollutant, less toxic, and
economical. The nZVI particles aggregate quickly with respect to time and the addition of supports such
as resin, nickel, zinc, bentonite, biopolymer, kaolin, rectorite, nickel-montmorillonite, bamboo, cellulose,
biochar, graphene, and clinoptilolite enhanced the stability of iron nanoparticles. Inclusion of supports
may in turn introduce additional toxic pollutants, hence green supports are recommended. The majority
of investigations concluded dye color removal as textile dye compound removal, which is not factual.
Very few studies monitored the removal of total organic carbon and observed the products formed. The
results revealed that partial mineralization of the textile dye compound was achieved. Instead of stand
alone technique, nZVI can be integrated with other suitable technique to achieve complete degradation
of textile dye and also to treat multiple pollutants in the real textile dyeing wastewater. It is highly
recommended to perform more bench-scale and pilot-scale studies to apply this technique to the textile
efuent contaminated sites.
2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Nano zero valent iron
Textile dye degradation
Partial mineralization
Textile dyeing wastewater
Environmental remediation
Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Treatment of textile dyeing industry wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
2.1.
Textile dyeing industry wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
2.2.
Conventional and advanced treatment methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
2.3.
Photocatalytic treatment using TiO2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Development of nZVI particles in environmental remediation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
3.1.
Permeable Reactive Barriers (PRBs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
3.2.
Iron PRBs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
3.3.
Zero valent iron particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
3.4.
nZVI particles with supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
3.5.
nZVI integrated with other technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Nano zero valent iron (nZVI) on textile dye degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
4.1.
nZVI efficiency over other iron forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
4.2.
Textile dyes chemical structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
4.3.
Reaction between nZVI particles and textile dye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
4.4.
Textile dye removal/degradation using nZVI particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
4.5.
Assessing textile dye degradation using nZVI particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: skanmani@annauniv.edu (S. Kanmani).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2016.04.034
0301-4797/ 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
342
5.
C.D. Raman, S. Kanmani / Journal of Environmental Management 177 (2016) 341e355
4.5.1.
Dye degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
4.5.2.
Influence of supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
4.5.3.
Integration with other treatment technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
4.5.4.
nZVI technique in presence of other pollutant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
4.5.5.
Fate of nZVI particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Conclusions and future perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
1. Introduction
Environmental pollution due to industrial activities has been
increasing in the last four decades. One such industry is textile
dyeing. The textile dye industry efuents are complex; consisting of
dyes, alkalis, organic and inorganic salts, acids, and heavy metals
(Ghaly et al., 2014). The conventional physicochemical and biological treatment methods are inefcient to treat water soluble
reactive textile dyes. There is no adequate color removal (Juang and
Tseng, 1996) and organic compound mineralization (Robinson
et al., 2001). The emerging photocatalytic treatment of textile
dyes using TiO2 also has drawbacks (Bubacz et al., 2010; Rajeshwar
et al., 2008). The existing treatment technologies discharge the
partially treated textile dye industry efuent into nearby environment thereby causing degradation (Geetha et al., 2008; Imran et al.,
2015; Mathur et al., 2005; Odjegba and Bamgbose, 2012;
Sellamuthu et al., 2011). In particular, the textile dye industry
efuent alters the color and quality of waterbodies. As the efuent
makes its way into the watertable, groundwater quality also gets
deterioted (Gopal and Saranyadevi, 2014; Hossain et al., 2014;
Senthilnathan and Azeeza, 1999b). The toxic impacts of textile
dyeing industry efuents on plants, soil, aquatic organisms and

human health were also reported (Mathur et al., 2006;
Puvaneswari et al., 2006; Rajaguru et al., 2003; Tfekci et al.,
2007). Immediate urge of the current research is to treat the
textile dyeing wastewater efciently and economically. Also it is
essential to remediate the textile industry efuent contaminated
sites (Nelliyat, 2012; Ventura-camargo and Marin-morales, 2013).
Iron metal has traditionally been utilized in permeable reactive
barriers to remediate contaminated subsurface sites (Blowes et al.,
1995). The application of iron in permeable reactive barrier gradually extinct due to its corrosive behavior over time, which lead the
introduction of micro size and nano size of elemental metallic iron
into remediation technique (Ponder et al., 2001; Zhang, 2003). The
nano size zero valent iron particles have advantages over micro size
due to large specic surface area and high reactivity (Ngomsik et al.,
2005). Table 1 summarizes the review papers published in
2003e2015 in the eld of environmental remediation using
nanoparticles.
The application of nanotechnology in environmental remediation has been evolving since last decade (Kamat and Meisel, 2003).
Most of the review papers proposed nZVI particles for
Table 1
Review papers published in 2003e2015 on environmental nano remediation e a summary.
Purpose
Nanoparticles in environmental applications
Nanoscience in environmental remediation
Nanotechnologies for environmental clean up
Nanomaterials in pollution trace detection

Effect of nanoparticles in the environment
Nanotechnology in water and wastewater treatment
Magnetic and iron oxide nanomaterials, polymer
supported nano composites in environmental
applications
Nano zero valent iron (nZVI) in environmental remediation
Environmental remediation e contaminated land,
groundwater and subsurface
Bimetallic supports in organic pollutant degradation
Fate, mobility, reactivity in porous media
Nanoparticles in pollutant removal/degradation (especially textile dyes)
Carbon and iron nanomaterials: azo dyes and Cr(VI)
Metal and its oxides, bimetallic, clay composites e nanoparticles: organic and inorganic
pollutants
nZVI particles: organic compounds
Carbon nano tubes, nano diamond, nano TiO2, nZVI,
nano ZnO, nano MgO: dye adsorption
Conclusion:
Textile dyes removal/degradation using nZVI particles: currently evolving
Textile dye efuent contaminated site remediation utilizing nZVI: competent technique
Literatures
(Kamat and Meisel, 2003)
(Hoyt and Mason, 2008; Karn et al., 2009; Liu, 2006; Mueller and Nowack,
2010; Pandey and Fulekar, 2012; Stone et al., 2010; Tratnyek and Johnson,
2006)
(Riu et al., 2006; Zhang and Fang, 2010)
(Gottschalk and Nowack, 2011; Grillo et al., 2014; Ju-Nam and Lead, 2008;
Nowack and Bucheli, 2007)
(Bhattacharya et al., 2013; Brar et al., 2010; Chaturvedi et al., 2012; Pradeep
and Anshup, 2009; Qu et al., 2013)
mez-Pastora et al., 2014; Xu et al., 2012; Zhao et al., 2011)
(Go
(Crane and Scott, 2012; Cundy et al., 2008; Grieger et al., 2010; Kharisov et
al., 2012; Li et al., 2006; Mueller et al., 2012; O'Carroll et al., 2013;
Taghizadeh et al., 2013; Zhang, 2003)
(Liu et al., 2014)
(Shi et al., 2015; Tosco et al., 2014; Yan et al., 2013)
(Batool et al., 2014)
(Trujillo-Reyes et al., 2014)
(Fu et al., 2014; Raychoudhury and Scheytt, 2013)
(Tan et al., 2015)
343
Fig. 1. Publications (2004e2015) on textile dye degradation using nanoparticles.
Fig. 2. Limitations on conventional and advanced treatment methods.
environmental restoration (Table 1). Recent publications conrmed

the competence of nano zero valent iron (nZVI) particles on textile
dye removal (Batool et al., 2014; Fu et al., 2014; Raychoudhury and
Scheytt, 2013; Tan et al., 2015; Trujillo-Reyes et al., 2014). The
application of nZVI particles on textile dye degradation is receiving
more focus in the current decade (Fig. 1). The toxicity of nZVI particles are less compared to carbon nano tubes, nano diamond, nano
TiO2, nano ZnO on textile dye degradation and also no toxic effect is
reported on humans (Tan et al., 2015).
The application of nZVI particles to remove various contaminant
344
(like chlorinated, halogenated aliphatic, nitrates, nitro aromatic

carbons, phenols, heavy metals, inorganic species, explosives, and
pesticides) has been reviewed extensively (Fu et al., 2014;
Raychoudhury and Scheytt, 2013), hence it is out of scope of this
article. This article is dedicated to review the application of nZVI
particles in the treatment of textile dyes. Detailed evaluations are
performed to identify the future needs of nZVI technique on textile
dyes degradation and its further application on real textile dyeing
wastewater and efuent contaminated sites.
2. Treatment of textile dyeing industry wastewater
2.1. Textile dyeing industry wastewater
Textile manufacturing industry consumes nearly 200 L of water
to produce 1 kg of textile fabrics (Ghaly et al., 2014) and utilizes a
variety of dyes and chemicals. Textile market utilized more than
half of world dye and organic pigment, and the demand is expected
to increase more than $30 billion in 2019 (World Dyes & Organic
Pigments Market - Research Report, 2015). Reactive and disperse
dyes continue to represent nearly half of total world dye demand,
due to their popularity in the large textile market. During the
dyeing process, not all the dyes are xed to the fabrics. There is
always a portion of unxed dye which gets washed away along with
water that forms the main pollutant in textile efuent. Reactive dye
is an unxed water soluble dye applied to cotton fabrics and it gets
discharged 50e90% in the textile efuent (Al-Degs et al., 2000). The
other pollutants include alkalis, organic and inorganic salts, acids,
and heavy metals. It is estimated that about 3 106 L of wastewater
is reproduced after processing about 20,000 kg of textiles per day
(Senthilnathan and Azeez, 1999a).
2.2. Conventional and advanced treatment methods
The conventional and advanced treatment methods (occulation, fenton oxidation, membrane ltration, adsorption, phytoremediation, bioremediation, photochemical, ion exchange,
electrochemical oxidation, electrolytic precipitation, and ozonation) for textile dyeing industry efuents have limitations such as
sludge production and disposal issue, transfer of contaminants
from one phase to another, inhibition of bacterial growth, formation of by-products, suitable for only specic dyes, costly, long
contact time requirement, and short life of the applied technique.
The limitations of the respective treatment methods are presented
in Fig. 2. The textile dye is the main pollutant that needs effective
treatment to achieve complete mineralization, which is not
possible with available conventional and advanced treatment
methods (Ghaly et al., 2014; Robinson et al., 2001).
2.3. Photocatalytic treatment using TiO2
Photocatalytic oxidation is the latest treatment technique,
generates low waste and utilizes ultraviolet (UV) illumination as
well as titanium dioxide (TiO2) as catalyst to achieve textile dye
degradation. The UV light enhances TiO2 catalyst activity during
dye degradation (Bizani et al., 2006; Kanmani and Thanasekaran,
2003; Lachheb et al., 2002; Tang and An, 1995; Vautier et al.,
2001). Bubacz et al. (2010) achieved more than 90% dye decolorization using TiO2/UV system but only 3.99% of total organic carbon
(TOC) removal was observed in 6 h at pH 9. Although, there are
benets in utilizing TiO2, some limitations exist for the pure TiO2,
having bandgap larger than 3.2 eV (Linsebigler et al., 1995) and the
electron-hole recombination rate is too high, resulting in low
photocatalytic efciency (Ueda and Otsuka-Yao-Matsuo, 2004;
Wang et al., 2006; Zyoud et al., 2010). In addition, the photocatalytic activity of TiO2 catalyst degraded textile dyes partially and
produced toxic intermediates, and products (Akpan and Hameed,
2009; Chen, 2009; Konstantinou and Albanis, 2004; Rajeshwar
et al., 2008). Zn doped TiO2 decreased the bandgap energy and
showed better photocatalytic activity even in the visible light
(Singla et al., 2014). However, the dye degradation using metal
doped TiO2 (Karimi and Zohoori, 2013; Singla et al., 2014) or other
metal catalyst (Kansal et al., 2009; Mahmoodi et al., 2014; Manivel
et al., 2015; Rahman et al., 2013; Tolia et al., 2012; Vidhu and Philip,
2014) may generate toxic intermediates or introduce metal pollution. Also the photocatalytic degradation technique is efcient only
for pumping and treating strategies, and not suitable for eld
application in remediating contaminated sites.
3. Development of nZVI particles in environmental
remediation
3.1. Permeable Reactive Barriers (PRBs)
Environmental and geotechnical scientists explored PRB technology (Gavaskar, 1999; Starr and Cherry, 1994; Thomson et al.,
1991) to restore the subsurface environment by treating the
contaminant plumes movement in ground water and soils. PRB is a
Fig. 3. (a) Micrograph of oxidized nZVI particles (b) TEM image of aggregated nZVI particles.
designed subsurface barrier lled with reactive materials, allows

the contaminant plume to ow through and convert them into
environmentally acceptable forms. Many reactive media combinations (aluminium, zinc, magnesium, iron, limestone, clay, zeolite,
and microbes) have been applied and investigated for the treatment of variety of organic contaminants.
3.2. Iron PRBs
In situ porous reactive walls using granular iron metal was
found as an effective treatment technique for the contaminated
groundwater (Blowes et al., 1995; Gillham and O'Hannesin, 1994).
The remediation depends on the redox reaction between metallic
iron and a reducible contaminant (Powell et al., 1995). Inorganic
species are also remediated using iron PRBs (Gillham, 1995). The
lack of long-term performance of iron PRBs in the contaminated
site was observed (Korte, 2001; Puls et al., 1998). The potential of
micro and nano zero valent iron in remediating contaminated sites
has been gradually recognized (Ponder et al., 2000).
345
the aggregated two months aged nZVI particles, chemically synthesized using sodium borohydride method and the behavior was
observed for this review.
3.4. nZVI particles with supports
The aggregation behavior can be inhibited by adding supports or
nanocomposites. Schrick et al. (2004) utilized carbon supported
nZVI in the presence of palladium for the removal of TCE in subsurface environment. This study showed that the supported nZVI
improved the reactivity, mobility of the particles in subsurface
remediation. Zhang et al. (2010) achieved the removal of Pb(II) in
60 min using 5 g/L of kaolin supported nZVI. Ali et al. (2015) added
porous cation exchange resin to nZVI particles to reduce Cr(VI) to
Cr(III) in aqueous solution. Currently, green supports using grape
leaf, green tea, eucalyptus leaf, and other tree leaf extracts are
under review for the stabilization of nZVI particles and also to
improve their reactivity (Hoag et al., 2009; Kharissova et al., 2013;
Machado et al., 2015; Prasad et al., 2014; Shahwan et al., 2011;
Wang et al., 2014a, 2014b; Weng et al., 2013).
3.3. Zero valent iron particles

3.5. nZVI integrated with other technique
Micro and nano zero valent iron are the elemental form of
metallic iron in micro and nano size. Ponder et al. (2001) studied
the micro and nano size zero valent iron characteristics such as
specic surface area, reactivity, and corrosion behavior. Shih et al.
(2010) observed a much larger specic surface area for nZVI particles (29 m2/g) than that of micro zero valent iron (mZVI) particles
(0.2 m2/g), which improved the pollutant removal rate. The nZVI
particles were injected into the subsurface eld to treat trichloroethylene (TCE), but the background of the technique was not well
aware (Zhang, 2003). Sun et al. (2006) synthesized nZVI particles
using sodium borohydride method. Exposure to atmospheric air
oxidizes nZVI particles surface and the iron nanoparticles aggregate
with respect to time, due to its magnetic property (Tiraferri et al.,
2008). Fig. 3 (a) and (b) display the images of oxidized nZVI and
The nZVI particles treatment can be integrated with other

technique, to improve its reactivity on the pollutant. Cundy et al.
(2008) introduced reactive barrier technology integrated with
electrokinetic technique using iron rich electrodes to remove heavy
metal pollutants (zinc, copper, arsenic, uranium, lead, chromium)
from land and subsurface environment. Recent studies (Gomes
et al., 2015, 2014, 2012; Reddy et al., 2011; Yang and Chang, 2011)
integrated nZVI with electrokinetic technique to improve the
reactivity and mobility of iron nanoparticles in the contaminated
environment. Taha and Ibrahim (2014) treated palm oil mill
efuent using nZVI technique integrated with sono-fenton process
and achieved 80% chemical oxygen demand (COD) reduction in 2 h
in the presence of high ultrasound but silent degradation removed
Fig. 4. Evolution of Iron Permeable Reactive Barriers (PRBs) to nZVI technique on Environmental Remediation e past two decades (1995e2015).
346
80% COD in 24 h. The development of iron metal in the past two

decades (1995e2015) in restoring contaminated environment are
schematically represented (Fig. 4).
hydroxyl (eOH). The auxochromes are present in all the classes of

reactive, acid, direct, basic, mordant, vat, sulphur, and disperse dyes
(Welham, 2000).
4. Nano zero valent iron (nZVI) on textile dye degradation
4.3. Reaction between nZVI particles and textile dye
4.1. nZVI efciency over other iron forms
The reaction between nZVI particles and textile dye is important

to understand the dye degradation or dye removal strategy and the
formation of respective intermediates or products.
The nZVI particles are good electron donors and the dye molecules are excellent electron acceptors (Chompuchan and
Satapanajaru, 2009), presented in Fig. 6. The nZVI particles
reduce to Fe2 and Fe3 ions in the aqueous medium and the hydroxyl, hydrogen ions generated during reduction process react
with dye molecules to induce the break of chromophore (eN]Ne)
bond (Jing et al., 2009; Shu et al., 2007). The nZVI particles have to
break the auxochrome bond as well to decolorize the dye molecules
and the resulting intermediate organic compounds need further
mineralization into CO2, H2O and inorganic ions to achieve complete degradation (Bokare et al., 2008).
In addition to nZVI, mZVI and iron oxides can also be opted for
textile dye degradation (Trujillo-Reyes et al., 2014; Xu et al., 2012).
However the efciency of mZVI and iron oxide are inferior, due to
the intrinsic passive layer of mZVI and inert surface of oxidized iron
(Guan et al., 2015). Chompuchan and Satapanajaru (2009) and Shih
et al. (2010) observed the specic surface area of nZVI particles
(29.67 m2/g, 29 m2/g) is larger than mZVI (2.55 m2/g, 0.2 m2/g). The
nZVI particles decolorized 90% dye molecules in 24 min but mZVI
particles achieved only 25% dye decolorization (Shih et al., 2010).
Also the achievement of nZVI particles on textile dye degradation
has been widely reported in recent years (Fig. 1.). The percentage of
research carried out on textile dye degradation using nZVI is higher
than mZVI and iron oxides, indicated in Fig. 5.
4.4. Textile dye removal/degradation using nZVI particles

4.2. Textile dyes chemical structure
Dyes used in the textile industry possess unique chemical
structure for each color. Chromophore is a group of atoms or
electrons present in the dye molecules responsible for its color. A
compound containing a chromophore is called as chromogen.
Another group of atoms or electrons connected to the chromophore
called as auxochrome, which strengthen the color of the chromogen (Christie, 2015). The most common chromophores are
carbon-carbon double bond (eC]Ce), carbon-nitrogen double
bond (eC]Ne), carbonyl (eC]Oe), azo (eN]Ne), nitro (eNO2),
methine (eCH]), and quinoid rings. The available auxochromes
are carboxyl (eCOOH), amine (eNH3), sulfonate (eSO3H), and
The nZVI particles application on textile dye degradation has

been initiated by Chen (2004). The textile dye removal or degradation has been achieved either using bare nZVI particles or supported nZVI particles and/or integrated with other degradation
technique in the recent decade (2004e2015). The laboratory scale
applications of nZVI particles on textile dye removal/degradation
are compiled in Table 2.
The degradation of textile dyes using nZVI particles depend on
pH of the reactive medium, nZVI dose, initial dye concentration,
and dye volume. The high amount of H ions present in the reactive
medium (pH < 5) improved textile dye degradation, observed in
few studies (Table 2). Jing et al. (2009) achieved 90% dye
Fig. 5. Contribution of nZVI particles on textile dye degradation (2004e2015).
Fig. 6. Interaction between nZVI particles and textile dye molecule.
347
Table 2
Textile dye degradation/removal using nZVI particles.
Dyes
Orange II
Solvent Blue 36 (SB)
Reactive yellow (RY)
Methylene Blue (MLB)
Methyl Orange (MO)
Direct Fast Black G
Orange IV
Malachite Green (MG)
Congo Red (CR)
Remazol Black B 133
Methyl Orange
Methyl Orange (MO)
Methyl Blue (MB)
Orange II (OR)
Direct Yellow 12
Rosso Zetanyl B-NG
Acid Orange 7
Malachite Green
Methylene Blue
Sunset Yellow (SY)
Acid Blue (AB)
Methyl Orange (MO)
Basic Magenta
Malachite Green
Vat Green 1
Orange II
Eriochrome Blue Black R
Supports/Nano
composites
Integrated
with other
techniques
nZVI
dose
e
e
Clinoptilolite
e
Microwave
radiation
e
0.01 g
0.2 g,
0.3 g
0.1 g
Kaolin
3D Graphene
Zinc
e
e
e
Ultrasonic
irradiation
e
e
Dye
pH
Dye degradation/
Removal efciency
Literatures
6
7
>92% in 30 min
SB: 93.8% in 5 min;
RY: 59.9% in 5 min
MLB: 90.9%, 95.1% in 7h;
MO: 91.0%, 90.5% in 7h
98.9% in 30 min
94.5% in 1h
MG: 90% in 50 min;
CR: 90% in 30 min
80% in 15 min
(Luo et al., 2015)

(Mao et al., 2015)
Volume
Initial
concentration
2 ml
250 ml
25 ml
10 mg/l
50 mg/l,
60 mg/l
100 mg/l
0.5 g
0.2 g/l
0.15 g
1000 ml
50 ml
50 ml
100 mg/l
200 mg/l
500 mg/l
e
7
7
0.3 g/l
1500 ml
200 mg/l
0.6 g/l
0.2 g/l
200 ml
100 ml
200 mg/l
100 mg/l
5
6
e
H2O2
oxidation
e
e
e
e
0.3 g
0.1 g
100 ml
25 ml
40 mg/l
100 mg/l
5.2
4.8
0.5 g/l
e
0.02 g/l
0.5 g
50 ml
8 ml
50 ml
10 ml
140 mg/l
50 mg/l
140 mg/l
100 mg/l
4
6
7.6
7
1 g/l
10 ml
100 mg/l
0.36 g
0.5 g
0.2 g
0.3 g
100 ml
50 ml
100 ml
100 ml
55 g
0.07 g
2 g/l
0.05 g
Biopolymer
Pd and TiO2
e
e
e
Ultrasonic
irradiation
UV light
e
e
H2O2
oxidation
e
UV light
Bentonite
e
e
e
Biochar
Cellulose
e
Bentonite
Persulfate
e
Bamboo
e
Nickelmontmorillonite
Bentonite
e
Rectorite
e
93% in 7 min
MO: 62.5e66.4% in 1h;
MB: 93.1e94.1% in 1h;
MLB: 74e80.9% in 1h;
OR: 82.5e88% in 1h
90.02% in 105.35 s
92.7% in 60 min
(Nairat et al., 2015)

(Jin et al., 2015)
(Wang et al., 2015a)
(Gautam et al., 2015)
(Dutta et al., 2015)
(Han et al., 2015)
(Wang et al., 2015b)
(Sohrabi et al., 2014)

(Kerkez et al., 2014)
(Li et al., 2014)
(Huang et al., 2014)
(Shaibu et al., 2014)
(Rahman et al., 2014)
95% in 5 min
90.56% in 1h
79.6% in 120 min
SY: 98.9% in 30 min;
AB: 98.8% in 30 min;
MO: 79.9% in 30 min
85% in 12 min
162.62 mg/l
30 mg/l
70 mg/l
100 mg/l
3.03
5
e
3
95.16% in 33 min
67% in 60 s
100% within 10 min
100% in 20 min
(Abbassi et al., 2013)

(Arabi et al., 2013)
(Luo et al., 2013)
(Khaloo and Fattahi, 2013)
1000 ml
30 ml
50 ml
50 ml
175 mg/l
100 mg/l
100 mg/l
50 mg/l
e
6.5
2
3
(Khani et al., 2013)

(Chen et al., 2012)
(Poursaberi et al., 2012)
(Shahwan et al., 2011)
2 g/l
0.5 g/l
200 ml
100 ml
200 mg/l
100 mg/l
4
3
1000 ml
100 ml
100 mg/l
100 mg/l
6.5
5
1000 ml
100 mg/l
(Kadu and Chikate, 2013)
Acid Orange 7
Crystal Violet
Basic Yellow 28
Methyl Orange (MO)
Acid Yellow 17
Reactive Black 5 (RB)
Reactive Red 198 (RR)
Methyl Orange
Phenol Red (PR)
Acridine Orange (AO)
Methyl Violet (MV)
Azo Carmine (AC)
Light Green (LG)
Orange II
ZnO-perlite
Kaolin
e
e
H2O2
oxidation
0.5 g/l
1 g/l,
0.5 g/l,
1 g/l,
1 g/l,
1 g/l
0.02 g/l
0.01 g/l
Methyl Orange
Acid Blue 113
Reactive Black (RB) 5
Reactive Red (RR) 198
Acid Black 24
e
Resin
e
e
e
e
3 g/l
20 g/l
0.05 g
10 ml
1000 ml
10 ml
25 mg/l
100 mg/l
100 mg/l
6
9
5
97% in 90 min
>97.23% in 7 min
98.2% in 15 min
MLB: > 80% in 5 min;
MO: 80% in 1h
97.8% in 35 min
(RB RR) mix: >70%
in 90 min
79.46% in 10 min
PR: 78.90% in 6h;
AO: 90.72% in 6h;
MV: 62.01% in 6h;
AC: 76.60% in 6h;
LG: 90.13% in 6h
Simultaneous and
sequential process:
39% and 53% in 1h
90% in 24 min
100% in 60 min
100% in 2h
0.3348
g/l
1000 ml
98.18 mg/l
100% in 10 min
Bromothymol Blue
H2O2
oxidationUV light
e
(Shih et al., 2010)

(Shu et al., 2010)
(Chompuchan and
Satapanajaru, 2009)
(Shu et al., 2009)
5 ml
500 mg/l
84% in 15 min
(Hoag et al., 2009)
Methyl Orange
Orange G
Acid Orange 7
Acid Orange 8
Acid Orange 10
Sunset Yellow
Methyl Orange
Acid Black 24
Acid Black 24
e
Nickel
Resin
e
e
e
0.145
g/l
0.5 g/l
3 g/l
2g
1000 ml
e
50 ml
100 mg/l
150 mg/l
500 mg/l
6
6
6
100% in 10 min
100% in 10 min
70e85% in 6 min
(Jing et al., 2009)

(Bokare et al., 2008)
(Zhao et al., 2008)
e
e
e
e
500 ml
1000 ml
50 mg/l
100 mg/l
6
6.7
100% in 20 min
98.9% in 30 min
(Lin et al., 2008)

(Shu et al., 2007)
Acid Orange 7
Basic Orange 2
Acid Orange 6
200 ml
2500 mg/l
90% in 2h
(Chen, 2004)
0.3 g/l
0.3348
g/l
0.1 g
(Rakhshaee, 2011)
(Satapanajaru
et al., 2011)
(Chen et al., 2011)
(Prema et al., 2011)
(Moon et al., 2011)
348
decolorization within 1 h in 200 ml dye solution, even with pH 9.

Similarly, Chen et al. (2011) observed 99.75% dye decolorization in
6 h at 25 ml textile dyeing wastewater having pH 8.3. Both studies
concluded that even with no inuence of H ions, nZVI particles can
decolorize textile dye effectively. The increase in nZVI dose
enhanced the reaction kinetics between textile dye and nanoparticles (Rahman et al., 2014; Zhao et al., 2008). The investigated
dye concentration ranges from 10 mg/L to 500 mg/L and the
maximum dye volume treated was 1000 ml. All the research are
limited to laboratory scale. The dye degradation rate is very high
within 30 min for most of the studies, presented in Fig. 7. This is
because the bare nZVI particles are initially very reactive and the
dye molecules occupied the reactive sites of nZVI particles when
the contact begins (Rahman et al., 2014). The reaction time was
extended by adding supports (Nairat et al., 2015) and efciency was
improved by integrating with other treatment techniques (Khaloo
and Fattahi, 2013).
4.5. Assessing textile dye degradation using nZVI particles
4.5.1. Dye degradation
The textile dye degradation using nZVI particles have been
evaluated in detail and presented in Table 3. The dye color removal
was observed in all studies, but the complete mineralization of dye
molecule would be conrmed through total organic carbon (TOC)
removal. Only a few researchers (Mao et al., 2015; Shu et al., 2009,
2007) observed the TOC removal in the presence of bare nZVI
particles and it ranges from 20.3% to 55%. This revealed that only
partial mineralization of the dye molecules was achieved in the
presence of bare nZVI particles. The TOC removal was increased to
91.5% by adding oxidizing agent H2O2 and integrated with UV
technique (Shu et al., 2009).
The dye degradation process can be monitored by observing
intermediates and end-products. This aids to assess the overall
process of dye degradation using nZVI particles. The intermediates
and nal products such as 1-diazo-2-naphthol, 2-naphthol, benzenesulfonate, sulfonic acid, and aromatic amines were reported in
very few studies (Bokare et al., 2008; Han et al., 2015; Luo et al.,
2015). This conrms that the toxic organic intermediates still
exist, even if the dye molecule is decolorized. Few studies discussed
or proposed the degradation mechanism of dye molecules using
nZVI without recording intermediates or end products and TOC

removal. Most of the studies (Table 3) identied dye color removal
as textile dye compound removal which was not the case.
4.5.2. Inuence of supports
The nZVI particles aggregate very fast due to their highly reactive surface area and keeping them stable is a major task. The bare
nZVI particles have a specic surface area between 13.9 m2/g and
140.8 m2/g reported in few studies presented in Table 3. The supports like resin, nickel, bentonite, biopolymer, kaolin, rectorite,
nickel-montmorillonite, bamboo, persulfate, cellulose, biochar,
zinc, 3D graphene, and clinoptilolite have been utilized to prevent
the aggregation and enhance the performance of nZVI particles
during textile dye degradation.
The metal (nickel, zinc) supports are added to iron nanoparticles, to improve the stability and reactivity towards textile dye
pollutant (Bokare et al., 2008; Gautam et al., 2015; Kadu and
Chikate, 2013). The specic surface area of nickel supported nZVI
gets reduced to 13.9 m2/g, but the specic surface area has been
increased for zinc supported nZVI as 73.08 m2/g. The corrosion
layer formation was prevented by metallic support and the reaction
time was extended (Gautam et al., 2015). The adsorption mechanism was observed on dye removal (Gautam et al., 2015; Kadu and
Chikate, 2013). Formation of non-degradable, toxic aromatic
amines were observed (Bokare et al., 2008), that failed to degrade
further and this study recommends nZVI technique to integrate
with other suitable technique to complete the mineralization. The
study also conrmed that the reaction process includes both
adsorption and reduction mechanism. Similarly, resin supported
nZVI particles immobilized the reduced Fe2 ions and achieved
adsorption process (Shu et al., 2010; Zhao et al., 2008).
Even the slight increase of polymers (Osman et al., 2015;
Rakhshaee, 2011) and biochar (Han et al., 2015) to the nZVI particles results in crowd formation and inhibit the degradation of dye
molecules. Rectorite, clinoptilolite, and kaolin supported nZVI
particles either increased (Luo et al., 2013; Nairat et al., 2015) or
decreased (Chen et al., 2012, 2011) nano composites specic surface
area. Jin et al. (2015) and Luo et al. (2013) identied initially the
adsorption mechanism on the supported nZVI particles and then
the reduction reaction of nZVI particles produced OH and H radicals
and induced the breakage of (eN]Ne) azo bond. Cellulose (Wang
Fig. 7. Textile dye degradation efciency using nZVI particles.
Table 3
Evaluation of nZVI particles application on degradation of textile dyes.
Supports/Nano
composites
Integrated nZVI
with other particles
techniques surface area
measured
Only dye color

TOC removal
removal
monitored in
addition to dye
color removal
Degradation Intermediates or
mechanism nal products
discussed or identied
proposed
Presence of inorganic
salts
Green
synthesis
of nZVI
Applied to
textile dyeing
wastewater efciency
Literatures
Orange II
Solvent Blue 36
Reactive yellow
Microwave e
radiation
Methylene Blue
Methyl Orange
Direct Fast Black G
Orange IV
Clinoptilolite
21.8 m2/g
25.6%, 20.3% for e

bare nZVI;
60.2%, 41.5% in
30 min (with
microwave
radiation)
e
e
Kaolin
3D Graphene
e
e
e
e
e
e
Malachite Green
Congo Red
Remazol Black B 133
Zinc
73.08 m2/g
Methyl Orange
Biochar
Ultrasonic
irradiation
e
Methyl Orange
Methyl Blue
Methylene Blue
Orange II
Direct Yellow 12
Cellulose
Rosso Zetanyl B-NG
Grape leaf
extract
(Luo et al.,
2015)
1-Diazo-2naphthol, 2Naphthol,
Benzenesulfonate
e
(Mao et al.,
2015)
e
e
e
e
e
e
>99.84% in 1h
e
20.89 m2/g
Sulfonic acid and

aromatic amines
e
(Nairat et al.,
2015)
(Jin et al., 2015)
(Wang et al.,
2015a)
(Gautam et al.,
2015)
(Dutta et al.,
2015)
(Han et al.,
2015)
(Wang et al.,
2015b)
Bentonite
57.8% in 1h
81.3% in 1h
28.637 m /g e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
Acid Orange 7
Malachite Green
Persulfate
e
H2O2
oxidation
e
e
Methylene Blue
Bamboo
e
Green tea
extract
e
Sunset Yellow
Acid Blue
Methyl Orange
Basic Magenta
Nickel-montmorillonite e
13.9 m2/g
Malachite Green
Bentonite
Vat Green 1
Orange II
Rectorite
Eriochrome Blue Black e

R
Acid Orange 7
ZnO-perlite
47.8 m /g
Ultrasonic
irradiation
UV light
NaCl, Na2CO3
(Sohrabi et al.,
2014)
(Kerkez et al.,
2014)
(Li et al., 2014)
(Huang et al.,
2014)
(Shaibu et al.,
2014)
(Rahman et al.,
2014)
(Kadu and
Chikate, 2013)
(Abbassi et al.,
2013)
(Arabi et al.,
2013)
(Luo et al.,
2013)
(Khaloo and
Fattahi, 2013)
(Khani et al.,
2013)
Dyes
(continued on next page)
349
350
Table 3 (continued )
Degradation Intermediates or
mechanism nal products
discussed or identied
proposed
Presence of inorganic
salts
Green
synthesis
of nZVI
Applied to
textile dyeing
wastewater efciency
Literatures
35.16 m2/g
Green tea
extract
e
Biopolymer
H2O2
oxidation
e
Pd and TiO2
UV light
13.97 m2/g
NaCl
100% in 3h
Bentonite
54.04 m2/g
Na2SO4
99.75% in 6h
(Chen et al.,
2012)
(Poursaberi
et al., 2012)
(Shahwan et al.,
2011)
(Rakhshaee,
2011)
(Satapanajaru
et al., 2011)
(Chen et al.,
2011)
(Prema et al.,
2011)
H2O2
oxidation
e
27.9 m2/g
16% in 1h
Supports/Nano
composites
Integrated nZVI
with other particles
techniques surface area
measured
Crystal Violet
Kaolin
Basic Yellow 28
Methylene Blue
Methyl Orange
Acid Yellow 17
Reactive Black 5
Reactive Red 198
Methyl Orange
Phenol Red
Acridine Orange
Methyl Violet
Azo Carmine
Light Green
Orange II
Methyl Orange
29 m /g
2
Acid Blue 113
Resin
25.96 m /g
12.6% in 1h
Reactive Black 5
Reactive Red 198
29.67 m2/g
Acid Black 24
H2O2
oxidationUV light
140.8 m2/g
Bromothymol Blue
55% for bare

e
nZVI; 91.5% in
2h (with H2O2
oxidation -UV)
e
Methyl Orange
Na2SO4
Green tea
extract
e
Orange G
Nickel
90 m /g
Aromatic amines
Acid Orange 7
Acid Orange 8
Acid Orange 10
Sunset Yellow
Methyl Orange
Acid Black 24
Acid Black 24
Resin
e
e
e
e
e
140.8 m2/g
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
Acid Orange 7
Basic Orange 2
Acid Orange 6
33.5 m2/g
e
53.8% in
10 min
e
(Moon et al.,
2011)
(Shih et al.,
2010)
(Shu et al.,
2010)
(Chompuchan
and
Satapanajaru,
2009)
(Shu et al.,
2009)
(Hoag et al.,
2009)
(Jing et al.,
2009)
(Bokare et al.,
2008)
(Zhao et al.,
2008)
(Lin et al., 2008)

(Shu et al.,
2007)
(Chen, 2004)
Only dye color

TOC removal
removal
monitored in
addition to dye
color removal
Dyes
et al., 2015b) and persulfate (Li et al., 2014) supported nZVI particles
maintained the dispersion of nZVI particles and protected the
surface from air and increased more contact area for nZVI particles.
However, the reactivity of nZVI particles gets reduced.
The supports like biochar, kaolin, rectorite, and clinoptilolite
instead of degrading the textile dye pollutant, adsorb and transfer it
to the environments to which they come in contact. Hence, it is
highly recommended to degrade textile dyes rather than transferring them under the adsorption process. The addition of supports such as heavy metals, resins, and polymers may introduce
toxic substances to the environment. The green supported nZVI
particles were synthesized using green tea extracts and grape leaf
extracts and its application on textile dye degradation were also
reported (Abbassi et al., 2013; Hoag et al., 2009; Luo et al., 2015;
Shahwan et al., 2011). There is no report available on bench-scale
and pilot-scale studies of nZVI particles application towards
textile dye degradation. The efciency of bare and green supported
nZVI particles on textile dye degradation have to be evaluated. The
application of bare or green supported nZVI particles to the real
textile dyeing wastewater and contaminated sites, needs more
investigations.
4.5.3. Integration with other treatment technique
The efciency of nZVI reactivity may be improved, if the nZVI
technique is integrated with other treatments like microwave radiation, ultrasonic irradiation, H2O2 oxidation, and UV illumination
(Dutta et al., 2015; Kerkez et al., 2014; Khaloo and Fattahi, 2013;
Khani et al., 2013; Mao et al., 2015; Moon et al., 2011;
Satapanajaru et al., 2011; Shahwan et al., 2011; Shu et al., 2009).
Mao et al. (2015) utilized microwave radiation with nZVI particles
to degrade reactive yellow, solvent blue 36 dyes and achieved
59.9%, 93.8% dye decolorization within 5 min respectively; the
corresponding total organic carbon removal was observed as 41.5%,
60.2% in 5 min. However the reaction mechanism between the dye
molecules and nZVI under microwave radiation was not explained
and its still on research. All other integrated studies observed only
dye decolorization. Very few research were reported in integrated
treatment with nZVI technique on textile dye degradation and it is
an emerging area. Recently, the electrochemical technique (Brillas
and Martnez-Huitle, 2015) is receiving extensive attention on
textile dye degradation and this technique can be integrated with
nZVI to achieve complete mineralization of the textile dye organic
compound.
4.5.4. nZVI technique in presence of other pollutant
The application of nZVI technique to textile dyeing wastewater
(Bokare et al., 2008; Chen et al., 2011; Jin et al., 2015; Kerkez et al.,
2014; Satapanajaru et al., 2011) at laboratory scale was reported.
The studies conrmed that the dye degradation using nZVI particles is possible in presence of other inorganic pollutants (Table 3).
The presence of Na2SO4 salts slowed down (Jing et al., 2009) and
reduced the efciency of degradation process because SO2
4 ions
(Chen et al., 2011) compete with dye molecules and occupy the
reactive sites on nZVI surface. Satapanajaru et al. (2011) identied
the pitting corrosion of NaCl on nZVI that improved the degradation rate. Khaloo and Fattahi (2013) observed the degradation efciency maintained even in the presence of Na2CO3 and also NaCl
increased kinetic dye removal rate. The efciency of nZVI on textile
dye degradation in presence of multiple pollutants needs more
research.
4.5.5. Fate of nZVI particles
Abbassi et al. (2013) explored the possibility of regeneration and
reuse of iron nanoparticles even after several cycles of dye pollutant
decolorization. It is adding advantage to the nZVI technique, to have
351
control on the fate of the nanoparticles in the environment. However, more bench-scale and pilot-scale studies are needed to support the investigations. Also, detailed investigations are required to
assess nZVI particles corrosion behavior (Guan et al., 2015;
Noubactep, 2015) in textile dyeing wastewater.
5. Conclusions and future perspectives

The environmental remediation using iron nanoparticles has
been emerging since last decade. Textile dyeing industry efuent
poses threat to the environment due to long term disposal. Conventional, advanced, and photocatalytic treatment techniques on
textile dyeing wastewater failed to degrade the textile dyes effectively and economically. The investigation of nZVI particles on
textile dye degradation is receiving more attention in the current
decade. The textile dye degradation process depends on nZVI dose,
initial dye concentration, and dye volume. To date all the studies are
limited to laboratory scale. All the research reviewed conrmed
that the textile dyes undergo either partial mineralization or
adsorption in the presence of bare or supported nZVI particles. The
performance of supported nZVI particles on textile dye degradation
enhanced nZVI stability rather than its reactivity. The decolorization of dye pollutant using nZVI in the presence of supports such as
biochar, clay (kaolin, bentonite, montmorillonite), zeolite (rectorite,
clinoptilolite, perlite) may be observed as an environmental risk, as
the supports transfer the adsorbed textile dye to various environments. Also heavy metals, resins, and polymer supported nZVI
particles may introduce toxicity or additional pollutants. Hence,
green supports are recommended to improve the stability of iron
nanoparticles, but it needs further studies to ensure its reactivity
towards dye degradation. The adequate dye decolorization of
67e100% was observed within the contact time of 1e10 min using
bare nZVI particles, but the textile dye degradation would be
conrmed only through TOC removal. The TOC removal during dye
degradation was 20.3e55% by nZVI technique, whereas it was
enhanced to 41.5e91.5% if nZVI technique is integrated with other
treatment techniques. Very limited studies are available in the
integration of nZVI with other treatment technique to degrade
textile dye and it requires more research to support the investigation. This review concludes that the following areas need additional
research on nZVI technique to treat real textile dyeing wastewater
and also to remediate textile efuent contaminated sites:
a) More bench-scale and pilot-scale studies of bare and green
supported nZVI particles on textile dye degradation
b) Integration with electrochemical technique to achieve complete mineralization of textile dye
c) Textile dye degradation in the presence of multiple
pollutants
d) Efciency of regeneration and reuse of nZVI after several
cycles of textile dyeing wastewater treatment
e) Corrosion behavior of bare and supported nZVI particles
f) Cost analysis of nZVI technique on textile dyeing wastewater
treatment
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the faculty and technicians in
the department of Nano Science and Technology, Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University, Coimbatore for SEM and TEM instrumentation facility, utilized to observe the morphology of aged iron
nanoparticles, synthesized for this review.
352
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2.textile Dye Degradation Using Nano Zero Valent Iron - A Review

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Textile dye degradation using nano zero valent

All in-text references underlined in blue are linked to publications on ResearchGate,

Available from: Chandra Devi Raman

Journal of Environmental Management 177 (2016) 341e355

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Environmental Management

Textile dye degradation using nano zero valent iron: A review

C.D. Raman, S. Kanmani / Journal of Environmental Management 177 (2016) 341e355

dyeing industry efuents on plants, soil, aquatic organisms and

Nanomaterials in pollution trace detection

C.D. Raman, S. Kanmani / Journal of Environmental Management 177 (2016) 341e355

Fig. 1. Publications (2004e2015) on textile dye degradation using nanoparticles.

Fig. 2. Limitations on conventional and advanced treatment methods.

environmental restoration (Table 1). Recent publications conrmed

C.D. Raman, S. Kanmani / Journal of Environmental Management 177 (2016) 341e355

(like chlorinated, halogenated aliphatic, nitrates, nitro aromatic

C.D. Raman, S. Kanmani / Journal of Environmental Management 177 (2016) 341e355

designed subsurface barrier lled with reactive materials, allows

3.3. Zero valent iron particles

The nZVI particles treatment can be integrated with other

C.D. Raman, S. Kanmani / Journal of Environmental Management 177 (2016) 341e355

80% COD in 24 h. The development of iron metal in the past two

hydroxyl (eOH). The auxochromes are present in all the classes of

4. Nano zero valent iron (nZVI) on textile dye degradation

4.3. Reaction between nZVI particles and textile dye

4.1. nZVI efciency over other iron forms

The reaction between nZVI particles and textile dye is important

4.4. Textile dye removal/degradation using nZVI particles

The nZVI particles application on textile dye degradation has

Fig. 5. Contribution of nZVI particles on textile dye degradation (2004e2015).

Fig. 6. Interaction between nZVI particles and textile dye molecule.

C.D. Raman, S. Kanmani / Journal of Environmental Management 177 (2016) 341e355

(Luo et al., 2015)

(Nairat et al., 2015)

(Sohrabi et al., 2014)

(Abbassi et al., 2013)

(Khani et al., 2013)

(Kadu and Chikate, 2013)

(Shih et al., 2010)

(Hoag et al., 2009)

(Jing et al., 2009)

(Lin et al., 2008)

(Moon et al., 2011)

C.D. Raman, S. Kanmani / Journal of Environmental Management 177 (2016) 341e355

decolorization within 1 h in 200 ml dye solution, even with pH 9.

nZVI without recording intermediates or end products and TOC

Fig. 7. Textile dye degradation efciency using nZVI particles.

Only dye color

25.6%, 20.3% for e

Rosso Zetanyl B-NG

Sulfonic acid and

Eriochrome Blue Black e

C.D. Raman, S. Kanmani / Journal of Environmental Management 177 (2016) 341e355

(continued on next page)

Acid Blue 113

55% for bare

(Lin et al., 2008)

C.D. Raman, S. Kanmani / Journal of Environmental Management 177 (2016) 341e355

Only dye color

C.D. Raman, S. Kanmani / Journal of Environmental Management 177 (2016) 341e355

5. Conclusions and future perspectives

C.D. Raman, S. Kanmani / Journal of Environmental Management 177 (2016) 341e355