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2.

2 Types of Solar energy technologies


2.2.1 Photovoltaic Systems
Photovoltaic (PV) systems are made up of cells which transform energy from the sun into
electricity. These cells integrate two or more layers of semiconductor materials which are
manipulated in such a way that a permanent electric field is produced across the intersection of
the layers. When sunlight strike the cell, this causes the electrons found in the semiconductors to
be excited. Some of these electrons get carried across the (p-n) junction by the electric field and
are carried towards the top conducting contacts of the cell. If a load is connected to the cell, the
electrons are allowed to flow, consequently generating electricity. (Canada. Environment
Canada, 2012).

Figure 1: Diagram of a crystalline silicon solar cell. (Solar Energy Industries Association, 2014)

2.2.1.1 Breakthroughs Involving Photovoltaic cells

Edmond Becquerel discovery of the photovoltaic effect

The photovoltaic effect was first discovered in the year 1839 by the French scientist Edmond
Becquerel. During an experiment on electricity conduction he observed that the conductivity
of certain materials were increased due to their exposure to light. The discoveries of the
French scientist were not taken seriously and his idea was overlooked for more thirty years.
The discovery about the photoconductivity of the element selenium by the English electrical
engineer Willoughby Smith in 1873 lead to others taking interest in the topic and developing
their version of the selenium solar cells without having in mind the usefulness of these cells
(Lund, 2008).

Albert Einsteins theory of the photoelectric effect

In the year 1905, the famous Albert Einstein penned and issued a paper describing this theory
about the photoelectric effect. In 1916, the American physicist Robert A. Milliken proved
Einsteins theories about the photoelectric effect which made Einstein win the Nobel Prize in
1921 (Lund, 2008).

First silicon solar cells

In the year 1918, a Polish scientist named Jan Czochralski discovered a way of producing
monocrystalline silicon which enabled the production of solar cell made up of that material
as from 1941 (Lund, 2008).

Commercial photovoltaic solar cells

In 1954, the Bell Telephone Laboratories created the first silicon solar cell having an
efficiency of around 4 %. The efficiency of the cells was increased up to 6 % within a few
months only (Lund, 2008).

Photovoltaic cells in Space

As from 1955, the company Hoffman Electronics have been working on improving the
efficiency of its commercial photovoltaic cells. This would lead to the launch of the first
satellite powered by solar cells, Vanguard I in 1958. Vanguard 1 had an array of very small
solar panels which generated enough power to keep its radio powered continuously for 8
years. In 1960, the same company Hoffman Electronics introduced commercially available
solar cells with an efficiency of 14%. By 1972 there was approximately around 1000
satellites running on solar power (Lund, 2008).

First solar car

In 1982, an Australian named Hans Tholstrup drove the first solar powered car, the Quiet
Achiever for a distance of 40000 km between Sydney and Perth in the only twenty days. The
maximum speed reached was 72 km/h and the average speed was 24 km/h (Lund, 2008) .

More efficient photovoltaic cells

In 1985, the researchers of the University of New South Wales in Australia broke the 20%
efficiency barrier for silicon solar cells. 14 years later, in 1999, the Spectrolav, Inc. and the
National Renewable Energy Laboratory developed a photovoltaic solar cell having an
efficiency of around 32.3 %. This was achieved by the combination of three layers of
photovoltaic material into a single cell. It was observed that the cell was working near its
maximum efficiency when it received sunlight focused to 50 times more than the normal
conditions. Hence lenses and mirrors are needed to concentrate sun rays onto the cell. In
2007, the University of Delaware broke the 40% efficiency hurdle by achieving a 42.8%
efficient solar cell technology (Lund, 2008).

2.2.1.2 Advantages of PV systems


1.
2.
3.
4.

Environmentally friendly as no harmful gas emissions during electricity generation.


PV systems use solar radiation as fuel which is a free and abundant source of energy.
Operation and maintenance costs are considered to be very low.
Photovoltaic panels make no noise during operation hence can be implemented in urban
areas.
5. PV systems can be modified based on energy requirements and are also movable.
6. Small scale or domestic solar photovoltaic systems are space efficient as they make use
of unused roof space.

2.2.1.3 Disadvantages of PV systems


1. Need of storage units and inverters for on-grid connections.
2. Low efficiency.
3. Panels are fragile and can be easily damaged.
4. Electricity production varies as dependent on the sun. (Green,2012)

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