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BOUNDARYLAYERFLOWS
Thepreviouschapterconsideredonlyviscousinternalflows.
Viscousinternalflowshavethefollowingmajorboundarylayercharacteristics:
* AnentranceregionwheretheboundarylayergrowsanddP/dxconstant,
* Afullydevelopedregionwhere:
Theboundarylayerfillstheentireflowarea.
Thevelocityprofiles,pressuregradient,andwareconstant;
i.e.theyarenotequaltof(x),
Theflowiseitherlaminarorturbulentovertheentirelengthoftheflow,
i.e.transitionfromlaminartoturbulentisnotconsidered.
However,viscousflowboundarylayercharacteristicsforexternalflowsare
significantlydifferentasshownbelowforflowoveraflatplate:
U
freestream
x laminar
laminarto
turbulent
transition
turbulent
edgeofboundarylayer
(x)
xcr
Fig.7.1Schematicofboundarylayerflowoveraflatplate
Fortheseconditions,wenotethefollowingcharacteristics:
Theboundarylayerthicknessgrowscontinuouslyfromthestartofthefluid
surfacecontact,e.g.theleadingedge.Itisafunctionofx,notaconstant.
Velocityprofilesandshearstressaref(x,y).
Theflowwillgenerallybelaminarstartingfromx=0.
Theflowwillundergolaminartoturbulenttransitionifthestreamwise
dimensionisgreaterthanadistancexcrcorrespondingtothelocationof
thetransitionReynoldsnumberRecr.
Outsideoftheboundarylayerregion,freestreamconditionsexistwhere
velocitygradientsandthereforeviscouseffectsaretypicallynegligible.
VII1
Asitwasforinternalflows,themostimportantfluidflowparameteristhelocal
Reynoldsnumberdefinedas
Rex
U x U x
where
=fluiddensity
=fluiddynamicviscosity
=fluidkinematicviscosity U =characteristicflowvelocity
x=characteristicflowdimension
Itshouldbenotedatthispointthatallexternalflowapplicationswillnotusea
distance from the leading edge x as the characteristic flow dimension. For
example,forflowoveracylinder,thediameterwillbeusedasthecharacteristic
dimensionfortheReynoldsnumber.
Transitionfromlaminartoturbulentflowtypicallyoccursatthelocaltransition
Reynoldsnumber,whichforflatplateflowscanbeintherangeof
Re cr
U xcr
500, 000
Thusforflatplateflowsforwhich:
x<xcr
theflowislaminar
xxcr
theflowisturbulent
ThesolutiontoboundarylayerflowsisobtainedfromthereducedNavier
Stokesequations,i.e.,NavierStokesequationsforwhichboundarylayer
assumptionsandapproximationshavebeenapplied.
VII2
FlatPlateBoundaryLayerTheory
LaminarFlowAnalysis
Forsteady,incompressibleflowoveraflatplate,thelaminarboundarylayer
equationsare:
Conservationofmass:
u v 0
x y
'X'momentum:
u u v u 1 dp 1 u
'Y'momentum:
p 0
dx
Thesolutiontotheseequationswasobtainedin1908byBlasius,astudentof
Prandtl's.Heshowedthatthesolutiontothevelocityprofile,showninthetable
below,couldbeobtainedasafunctionofasingle,nondimensionalvariable
definedas
Table7.1theBlasiusVelocityProfile
y U x
1/2
withtheresultingordinary
differentialequation:
1
f f 0
2
u
and f
U
f
Boundaryconditionsforthedifferentialequationareexpressedasfollows:
aty=0,v=0f(0)=0; ycomponentofvelocityiszeroaty=0
VII3
aty=0,u=0 f0 0 ; xcomponentofvelocityiszeroaty=0
VII4
Thekeyresultofthissolutioniswrittenasfollows:
2 f
0.332
y 0
w
U U / x
Withthisresultandthedefinitionoftheboundarylayerthickness,thefollowing
keyresultsareobtainedforthelaminarflatplateboundarylayer:
Localboundarylayerthickness
Localskinfrictioncoefficient:
C fx
5x
Re x
TotaldragcoefficientforlengthL(integration
ofwdAoverthelengthoftheplate,perunit
area,dividedby0.5U2)
0.664
Re x
1.328
CD
Re x
wherebydefinition C fx
CD
(definedbelow)
w x
1
2 and
FD / A
1
2
Withtheseresults,wecandeterminelocalboundarylayerthickness,localwall
shearstress,andtotaldragforceforlaminarflowoveraflatplate.
Example:
Air flowsover asharpedged flat platewithL =1m, awidthof 3mand
U=2m/s.Foronesideoftheplate,find:(L),Cf(L),w(L),CD,andFD.
Air:
=1.23kg/m3
FirstcheckRe: Re L
=1.46E5m2/s
U L 2 m / s* 2.15 m
294,520 500,000
1.46E 5m 2 / s
KeyPoint:Therefore,theflowislaminarovertheentirelengthoftheplateand
calculationsmadeforanyxpositionfrom01mmustbemadeusinglaminar
flowequations.
VII5
Boundarylayerthicknessatx=L:
5L
5* 2.15 m
0.0198 m 1.98 cm
Re L
294, 520
Localskinfrictioncoefficientatx=L:
C f L
0.664
0.664
0.00122
Re L
294, 520
Surfaceshearstressatx=L:
CD L
1.328
1.328
0.00245
Re L
294, 520
Dragforceoverplate,0L:
TurbulentFlowEquations
Whilethepreviousanalysisprovidesanexcellentrepresentationoflaminar,flat
plateboundarylayerflow,asimilaranalyticalsolutionisnotavailableforturbulent
flowduetothecomplexnatureoftheturbulentflowstructure.
However,experimentalresultsareavailabletoprovideequationsforkeyflowfield
parameters.
Asummaryoftheresultsforboundarylayerthicknessandlocalandaverageskin
frictioncoefficientforalaminarflatplateandacomparisonwithexperimental
resultsforasmooth,turbulentflatplateareshownbelow.
Laminar
x
C fx
CD
where
Turbulent
5x
Re x
0.664
Re x
1.328
Re L
C fx
w
1
2
C fx
0.031
C D 1/7
Re L
0.16 x
Re1/x 7
0.027
Re1/7
x
forturbulentflowover
entireplate,0L,i.e.
assumesturbulentflow
inthelaminarregion
localdragcoefficientbasedonlocal
wallshearstress(laminarorturbulent
flowregion)
and
C =totaldragcoefficient
D
basedontheintegratedforce
overthelength0toL
F/ A
CD 1
2
U
2
VII7
1
2
1 L
w x w dx
0
Acarefulstudyoftheseresultswillshowthat,ingeneral,boundarylayerthickness
growsfasterforturbulentflow,andwallshearandtotalfrictiondragaregreaterfor
turbulentflowthanforlaminarflowgiventhesameReynoldsnumber.
VII8
Itisnotedthattheexpressionsforturbulentflowarevalidonlyforaflatplatewith
asmoothsurface.Expressionsincludingtheeffectsofsurfaceroughnessare
availableinthetext.
CombinedLaminarandTurbulentFlow
U
freestream
x laminar
laminarto
turbulent
transition
edgeofboundarylayer
(x)
turbulent
xcr
Flatplatewithbothlaminarandturbulentflowsections
Forconditions(asshownabove)wherethelengthoftheplateissufficientlylong
thatwehavebothlaminarandturbulentsections:
*
Localvaluesforboundarylayerthicknessandwallshearstressforeitherthe
laminarorturbulentsectionsareobtainedfromtheexpressionsfor(x)and
Cf forlaminarorturbulentflowasappropriateforthegivenregion.
x
Theresultforaveragedragcoefficient CD andthustotalfrictionalforce
overthecombinedlaminarandturbulentportionsoftheplateisgivenby
(assumingatransitionReof500,000)
CD
*
0.031
0.031
1/ 7
Re1/7
L
5x106
Calculationsassumingonlyturbulentflowcantypicallybemadefortwocases:
1.
2.
whensomephysicalsituation(atripwire)hascausedtheflowtobe
turbulentfromtheleadingedgeor
ifthetotallengthLoftheplateismuchgreaterthanthelengthxcrof
thelaminarsectionsuchthatthetotallengthofplatecanbeconsidered
turbulentfromx=0toL.Notethatthiswilloverpredictthefriction
dragforcesinceturbulentdragisgreaterthanlaminar.
VII9
Withtheseresults,adetailedanalysiscanbeobtainedforlaminarand/orturbulent
flowoverflatplatesandsurfacesthatcanbeapproximatedasaflatplate.
VII10
Figure7.6inthetextshowsresultsforlaminar,turbulentandtransitionregimes.
Equations7.48a&bcanbeusedtocalculateskinfrictionanddragresultsforthe
fullyroughregime.
x 2.5
(7.48a)
L 2.5
(7.48b)
Equations7.49a&bcanbeusedtocalculatetotalCDforcombinedlaminarand
turbulentflowfortransitionReynoldsnumbersof5x105and3x106respectively.
CD
0.031 1440
Re1/7
ReL
L
Re trans 5x10 5
CD
0.031 8700
Re1/7
ReL
L
Re trans 3x106
Example:
Waterflowsoverasharpflatplate2.55mlong,1mwide,withUm/s.
EstimatetheerrorinFDifitisassumedthattheentireplateisturbulent.
Water:=1000kg/m3
=1.02Em2/s
Reynoldsnumber: Re L
U L 2 m / s * 2.55 m
5E 6 500, 000
1.02E 6 m 2 / s
CD
0.031
0.031
1/7
1/ 7 0.003423
6
Re L
5x10
VII11
FD
0.5 U 2 CD
FD 17.46 N
kg 2 m2
A 0.51000 3 2 2 0.003423 2.55m2
m
s
Thisshouldbehighsincewehaveassumedthatthe
entireplateisturbulentandthefirst10%is
actuallylaminar.
b.Nowconsidertheactualcombinedlaminarandturbulentflow:
CD
0.031 1440
0.031
1440
6 0.003135
6 1/7
Re1/7
Re
5x10
L
L
5x10
NotethattheCDhasdecreasedwhenboththelaminarandturbulentsectionsare
considered.
FD
0.5 U 2 CD
FD 15.99 N
Error
kg 2 m2
A 0.51000 3 2 2 0.003135 2.55m2
m
s
{Lowerthanthefullyturbulentvalue}
17.46 15.99
100 9.2% high
15.99
Thus,theeffectofneglectingthelaminarregionandassumingtheentireplateis
turbulentisasexpected.
Question: Sincexcr=0.255m,whatwouldyouranswersrepresentifyouhad
calculatedtheRe,CD,andFDusingx=xcr=0.255m?
Answer:
YouwouldhavethevalueofthetransitionReynoldsnumberandthe
dragcoefficientanddragforceoverthelaminarportionoftheplate
(assumingyouusedlaminarequations).
VII12
Ifyouhadusedturbulentequationsyouwouldhaveredmarksonyour
paper.
VII13
VonKarmanIntegralMomentumAnalysis
Whilethepreviousresultsprovideanexcellentbasisfortheanalysisofflatplate
flows,complexgeometriesandboundaryconditionsmakeanalyticalsolutionsto
mostproblemsdifficult.
Analternativeprocedureprovidesthebasisforanapproximatesolutionwhichin
manycasescanprovideexcellentresults.
Thekeytopracticalresultsistouseareasonableapproximationtotheboundary
layerprofile,u(x,y).Thisisusedtoobtainthefollowing:
ub d y
m
a. Boundarylayermassflow:
wherebisthewidthoftheareaforwhichtheflowrateisbeingobtained.
b. Wallshearstress:
d u
d y
Youwillalsoneedthestreamwisepressuregradient
y0
dP
formanyproblems.
dx
TheVonKarmanintegralmomentumtheoryprovidesthebasisforsuchan
approximateanalysis.Thefollowingsummarizesthistheory.
Displacementthickness:
Considertheproblem
indicatedintheadjacent
figure:
Auniformflowfieldwith
velocityUapproachesa
solidsurface.Asaresult
ofviscousshear,a
boundarylayervelocity
profiledevelops.
y=h+*
y
Streamline
U
h
0
x
VII14
Simulated
effect
Aviscousboundarylayeriscreatedwhentheflowcomesincontactwiththesolid
surface.
KeyPoint:Comparedtotheuniformvelocityprofileapproachingthesolid
surface,theeffectoftheviscousboundarylayeristodisplace
streamlinesoftheflowoutsidetheboundarylayerawayfromthewall.
Withthisconcept,wedefine*=displacementthickness
*= distancethesolidsurfacewouldhavetobedisplacedtomaintainthe
samemassflowrateasfornonviscousflow.
Fromthedevelopmentinthetext,weobtain
u
1
dy
U
0
*
Thus,thedisplacementthicknessvariesonlywiththelocalnondimensional
velocityprofile.Therefore,withanexpressionforu/U,wecanobtain*=f().
Example:
u
y
y
2
Given:
U
determineanexpressionfor*=f()
Notethatforthisassumedformforthevelocityprofile:
1.Aty=0,u=0correctfornoslipcondition
2.Aty=,u=Ucorrectforedgeofboundarylayer
3.Theformisquadratic
Tosimplifythemathematics,
let=y/aty=0,0
aty=dy=d
u
2 2
Therefore:
U
VII15
2 2 3
Substituting: 1 2 d
2
3
0
whichyields
1
0
Therefore,forflowsforwhichtheassumedquadraticequationapproximatesthe
velocity profile, streamlines outside of the boundary layer are displaced
approximatelyaccordingtotheequation
1
* 3
Thiscloselyapproximatesflowforaflatplate.
KeyPoint:WhenassumingaformforavelocityprofiletouseintheVonKarman
analysis,makesurethattheresultingequationsatisfiesbothsurfaceandfreestream
boundaryconditionsaswellashasaformthatapproximatesu(y).
MomentumThickness:
ThesecondconceptusedintheVonKarmanmomentumanalysisisthatof
momentumthickness
Theconceptissimilartothatofdisplacementthicknessinthatisrelatedtothe
lossofmomentumduetoviscouseffectsintheboundarylayer.
Considertheviscousflow
regionsshowninthe
adjacentfigure.
Defineacontrolvolumeas
shownandintegratearound
thecontrolvolumetoobtain
thenetchangeinmomentum
forthecontrolvolume.
c.v
U
h
D(onfluid)
0
x
VII16
u
Simulated
effect
VII17
IfD=dragforceontheplateduetoviscousflow,takingthefluidasthecontrol
volume,wecanwrite
D= (momentumleavingc.v.) (momentumenteringc.v.)
Completingananalysisshowninthetext,weobtain
u
u
1
d y
U
0 U
U2
CD
Usingadragcoefficientdefinedas
Wecanalsoshowthat
CD
D/A
1
2
2 L
L
where:(L)isthemomentumthicknessevaluatedoverthelengthL.
Thus,knowledgeoftheboundarylayervelocitydistributionu=f(y)alsoallows
thedragcoefficienttobedetermined.
Momentumintegral:
The final step in the Von Karman theory applies the previous control volume
analysistoadifferentiallengthofsurface. Performingananalysissimilartothe
previousanalysisfordragDweobtain
w
d U
d
* U
U2
dx
dx
VII18
Thisisthemomentumintegral
for 2D, incompressible flow
and is valid for laminar or
turbulentflow.
d U
* d P
where U
dx
dx
*
Therefore,thisanalysisalsoaccountsfor
theeffectoffreestreampressuregradient.
Foraflatplatewithnonaccelerating
flow,wecanshowthat
P const., U const.,
d U
0
dx
Therefore,foraflatplate,nonacceleratingflow,theVonKarmanmomentum
integralbecomes
w
d
2
2 d
U
dx
dx
Fromthepreviousanalysisandtheassumedvelocitydistributionof
u
y y 2
2 2
U
Thewallshearstresscanbeexpressedas
d u
2 2 y
2U
d y w
2
y0
2 U
(A)
Also,withtheassumedvelocityprofile,themomentumthicknesscanbe
evaluatedas
u
u
1
d y
U
U
0
or
VII19
2 2 1 2 2 d
0
2
15
Wecannowwritefromthepreviousequationforw
w U2
d 2
d
U2
d x 15
dx
EquatingthisresulttoEqn.Aweobtain
w
or
15
dx
U
30 x
2
d 2 U
U2
15
dx
whichafterintegrationyields
1/ 2
or
5.48
Re x
Notethatthisresultiswithin10%oftheexactresultfromBlasiusflatplatetheory.
Sinceforaflatplate,weonlyneedtoconsiderfrictiondrag(notpressuredrag),we
canwrite
C fx
w x 2 U 1
1
1
2
2
2
2
Substitutefortoobtain
C fx
2 U Re
0.73
5.48 12 U 2
Re x
VII20
Exacttheoryhasanumericalconstantof0.664comparedwith0.73fortheVon
Karmanintegralanalysis.
ItisseenthattheVonKarmanintegraltheoryprovidesthemeanstodetermine
approximateexpressionsfor
,w,andCf
usingonlyanassumedvelocityprofile.
Solutionsummary:
1. Assumeananalyticalexpressionforthevelocityprofilefor
theproblem.
2. Usetheassumedvelocityprofiletodeterminethesolutionfor
thedisplacementthicknessfortheproblem.
3. Usetheassumedvelocityprofiletodeterminethesolutionfor
themomentumthicknessfortheproblem.
4. UsethepreviousresultsandtheVonKarmanintegral
momentumequationtodeterminethesolutionforthe
drag/wallshearfortheproblem.
and7.3anddoesnothavetobeaccountedforseparately.
VII21