Breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis, Moraceae) and Chataigne

(A. camansi) for Food Security and Income Generation:

The Case of Trinidad and Tobago1
LAURA B. ROBERTS-NKRUMAH*,2

AND

GEORGE LEGALL3

Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies,
St. Augustine Campus, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago
3
Department of Para-Clinical Sciences, School of Basic Health Sciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences,
The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Campus, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago
*Corresponding author; e-mail: laura.roberts-nkrumah@sta.uwi.edu
Breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis, Moraceae) and Chataigne (A. camansi) for Food Security and
Income Generation: The Case of Trinidad and Tobago In 2009, a survey was conducted
among 83 breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis) and chataigne (A. camansi) farmers in five regions of
Trinidad and Tobago, where breadfruit consumption has been stigmatized traditionally, to
determine their perception of local consumers current attitudes to both crops and their
response to this market. Breadfruit and chataigne, respectively, were grown as food for home
consumption by 90.1% and 89.3%, for income by 67.9% and 65.3%, and for shading
cocoa, the traditional use, by 63.0% and 61.3% of the farmers. Perceived consumer
appreciation for these crops was rated as high to very high by 68.6% and 65.1% of farmers
for breadfruit and chataigne, respectively; 50.6% and 56% gave similar ratings for consumer
demand, while 61.4% and 57.8% thought the demand had increased over the last 10 years.
Awareness of preparation methods for the fruits as food, as livestock feed, and for uses of the
latex, leaves, and wood was reported. Estimated mean revenue for 2008 was USD 1,153.10
and USD 637.30 per farmer for breadfruit and chataigne, respectively. The results suggest
that with increasing domestic demand these crops have become cash crops. Promotion of
food and non-food uses will further increase farm incomes and the contribution of breadfruit
and chataigne to food and nutrition security in Trinidad and Tobago.
Key Words: Farmers perception, utilization, consumer demand, sales, Caribbean,
breadfruit, chataigne.

Introduction
Breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis [Parkinson ex F.A.
Zorn] Fosberg) has a long-established reputation
as a crop for food security. For thousands of years
it has been cultivated by the people of Oceania
(Zerega et al. 2004), where legends about its
origin associate it with food security (Loebel-Fried
2002) and where today it is still a valued staple
(Taylor and Tuia 2007). Seedless types were
developed from the seeded A. camansi Blanco
(kamansi, chataigne, castaa, breadnut) as the
early peoples of Oceania migrated eastwards with
1
Received 8 February 2013; accepted 18 October
2013; published online 1 November 2013.

this food source (Zerega et al. 2004). During the

17th and 18th centuries, European explorers,
impressed by the ability of the trees of the seedless
breadfruit to provide an accessible and abundant
supply of food, distributed it to other parts of the
tropics. Chataigne, previously regarded as a
seeded breadfruit, was included in these
distributions (Powell 1977). Therefore, the
distribution of the crop both within and outside
of Oceania, most famously in the Caribbean, was
associated mainly with food security (Sheridan
1976; Zerega et al. 2004).
The traditional role of breadfruit as a food crop
arises largely from its nutritional content and its
high productivity. Several studies (Broomes et al.
2009, 2011; Englberger et al. 2007; Golden and

Economic Botany, 67(4), 2013, pp. 324334

2013, by The New York Botanical Garden Press, Bronx, NY 10458-5126 U.S.A.

2013]

ROBERTS-NKRUMAH AND LEGALL: BREADFRUIT FOR FOOD AND INCOME

Williams 2007; Graham and Negron de Bravo

1981; Jones et al. 2011) have shown that the
carbohydrate content of the flour ranges from
61% to 84%, and it is an excellent source of
vitamins A and B, minerals including potassium
and calcium, important amino acids, essential
fatty acids, and dietary fiber. Based on the
nutritional content it was dubbed as one of the
super foods in the Caribbean (Magnus 2005).
Yields of 6.7 t/ha in agroforestry systems (Fownes
and Raynor 1993) and a potential yield of 50 t/ha
in pure stands (Roberts-Nkrumah 1998) compare
well with yields of cereal crops. Additionally, the
availability of a wide range of cultivars with
different bearing seasons can overcome seasonal
supplies from a single or a few cultivars that bear
fruit at the same time (Jones et al. 2010; RobertsNkrumah 2009). As a tree nut, chataigne is also
highly nutritious, since 100 g of dried seed
contains 13 to 20 g of protein, and it is a good
energy source, with 76% carbohydrates but only
6 to 13 g fat (Negron de Bravo et al. 1983;
Quijano and Arango 1979). Reported fruit and
seed yields were 140 and 59 kg/tree, respectively
(Roberts-Nkrumah 2005).
In spite of these positive characteristics,
significant decline in the level of consumption
of breadfruit has been noted in some Pacific
Island countries (Redfern 2007; Taylor and Tuia
2007) and in the Caribbean (Leakey 1977). In
Africa and Sri Lanka, breadfruit is minimally
consumed, mainly as a last resort when the
preferred staples are not available (Gamedoagbao
and Bennett-Lartey 2007; Medagoda 2007).
These low or declining levels of breadfruit and
chataigne consumption are of particular concern
since tree population and biodiversity decline
might also be occurring (Ragone 2007; RobertsNkrumah, 2007). Simultaneously, high
dependence on imported food and rising
international prices for agricultural commodities
have led to unsustainably high food import bills
in several countries where locally grown
breadfruit can become an important staple.
As underexploited crops, higher levels of
consumption are required to improve the
commercial attractiveness of production and to
increase the contribution of breadfruit and
chataigne to food and nutrition security. The
Caribbean is an important area to examine their
potential, given their status as introduced crops
and the greater level of commercialization than
elsewhere that exists there. Initially, breadfruit

325

was rejected as a food source (Sheridan 1976) and

only gained acceptance during the economicallychallenging period from Emancipation to the
1950s, when the annual per capita level of
consumption in Jamaica was 50.2 kg (Leakey
1977). The crop has continued to enjoy favor in
some countries, while in others its consumption is
stigmatized due to its association with slavery and
poverty (Roberts-Nkrumah 2007). Similarly,
chataigne was rejected, mainly for its seediness,
and has never achieved recognition as a food crop
in most Caribbean countries. Breadfruit and
chataigne exports to foreign markets are based
primarily on existing trees growing naturally in
gullies, in backyards, as border crops, or in
mixtures with other tree crops on small farms
(Roberts-Nkrumah 2007). Even with the recent
establishment of a few small commercial orchards,
the foreign exchange earnings from the relatively
small-scale exports are unlikely to impact
significantly on food security or income
generation by small producers in rural
communities. Instead, it is at the level of the
local markets that these goals might be better
realized.
The checkered history of breadfruit and
chataigne in the Caribbean is well reflected in
Trinidad and Tobago. This twin-island republic
is located in the southern Caribbean (102
1112N; 60306156W), with an area of
5,125 sq. km and a population of 1.35 million.
In 2011, it ranked 62nd out of 187 countries in
the world, with a Human Development Index of
0.760, which placed it among those countries
with a high level of human development like
most Caribbean countries (UNDP 2011).
Traditionally, breadfruit consumption was
stigmatized (Roberts-Nkrumah 2007), but a
recent study showed positive attitudes by
purchasers at local public markets toward this
food crop and also that household income did not
affect consumption levels (Roberts-Nkrumah and
Badrie 2005). Roberts-Nkrumah (2007) also
reported that chataigne was appreciated. There is
need, therefore, to determine farmers awareness
and responses to these positive signals from
consumers, particularly in terms of the amount
of breadfruit and chataigne supplied to the local
market. The present study was conducted among
farmers in Trinidad and Tobago to investigate
their reasons for growing breadfruit and
chataigne, perceptions of consumer appreciation
and demand for the crops, knowledge about

326

ECONOMIC BOTANY

utilization, level of sales, and the contribution of

these crops to farm income.

Methodology
In 2009, a survey was conducted among a total
of 83 breadfruit and chataigne farmers in
Trinidad and Tobago using face-to-face
interviews with a pre-tested questionnaire.
Farmers were asked about the number of
breadfruit and chataigne trees they grew, reasons
for growing them, awareness of methods of
utilization, perception of consumer appreciation
and demand, and sale of the fruits. The survey
was conducted in 12 out of 14 municipalities,
with the two cities, Port of Spain and San
Fernando, being excluded (Fig. 1). In Trinidad,
the municipalities were grouped into four regions:
North (Diego Martin, San Juan/Laventille,
Tunapuna/Piarco and Arima), East (Sangre
Grande and Rio Claro), Central (Chaguanas and
Couva/Tabaquite/Talparo), and South (Princes
Town, Penal/Debe, Siparia and Point Fortin).
Based on 830 breadfruit and chataigne farmers
recorded during the Trinidad and Tobago
Agricultural Census 2004 conducted by the
Central Statistical Office, the sample of farmers,
stratified by municipality and tree number, was
selected randomly. The distribution of farmers
among regions was 20.5, 45.8, 9.6, 19.3, and
4.8% in north, east, central, and south Trinidad,
and Tobago, respectively. Farmers were grouped
into three categories by tree number: small (<
20); medium (2049), and large (> 50).
IBM SPSS 20 for Windows was used for both
descriptive and inferential statistical data analysis.
Descriptive methods included the use of graphs
and frequency tables for data summary of selected
variables. Inferential methods included estimation
of proportions, e.g., computing and interpreting
confidence intervals, chi-square tests of
association, and Analysis of Variance for
comparing population means.

Results
DEMOGRAPHICS

OF

FARMERS

The ages of the 83 farmers ranged from 30 to

86 years (mean = 55.5 12.6 years). Most of the
farmers (55%) were 41 to 60 years old, and
(32.5%) were over 60 years old. Farmers of East
Indian descent comprised 54% of the sample,
and the others were of African, Venezuelan, or
mixed descent. The total area under cultivation

[VOL 67

varied from 0.6 to 28 ha (mean = 5.4 5.1 ha),

with most farmers (65%) cultivating not more
than 5 ha. Tree number per farm ranged from 1
to 200 for breadfruit and from 1 to 500 for
chataigne. In all regions, except east Trinidad, the
mean breadfruit tree number per farm was less
than 30, whereas the mean chataigne tree number
was approximately two and three times higher in
south and central Trinidad, respectively, than in
other regions in Trinidad (Table 1). Tree number
per farm for both crops was low in Tobago.

PURPOSE

FOR

WHICH CROPS WERE GROWN

Most of the farmers (88.0%) grew both

breadfruit and chataigne, with 9.6% growing
only breadfruit, and 2.4% growing only
chataigne. Among farmers who grew both crops,
their relative importance was similar for 49%,
while breadfruit was more important for 22.9%
and chataigne was more important for 15.7%.
Farmers commonly cultivated breadfruit and
chataigne for home consumption (90.1% and
89.3%, respectively) and for income generation
(67.9% and 65.3%, respectively). Preference for
breadfruit for revenue generation was associated
with the level of demand, whereas farmers who
preferred chataigne considered the greater
diversity of markets because of demand for the
fruit at different stages of maturityimmature
and mature fruits, and the mature seeds. The
latter farmers also preferred the ease of harvesting
ripe chataigne fruits for seeds, because the seeds
were collected from fallen fruits. Another major
reason for their cultivation was to provide shade
(63.0% and 61.3%, for breadfruit and chataigne,
respectively), but only 7.4% and 13.3% (for
breadfruit and chataigne, respectively) of the
farmers grew them for erosion control (Table 2).
Religious use was among the other reasons for
growing these crops, especially chataigne.

KNOWLEDGE

OF

CROP UTILIZATION

All breadfruit farmers and 97.3% of those who

grew chataigne reported that these crops were
used for human consumption. The most wellknown method of breadfruit preparation was by
steaming in a dish called oil-down, in which the
flesh of the fruit is cooked in coconut milk, with
vegetables and condiments, and to which salted
meats or fish may be added. Other commonly
reported methods of preparation were boiling,
roasting, and frying of breadfruit slices after

2013]

Fig. 1.

ROBERTS-NKRUMAH AND LEGALL: BREADFRUIT FOR FOOD AND INCOME

327

Map of Trinidad and Tobago with municipalities and regions.

boiling or roasting (Fig. 2). One Africaninfluenced preparation method reported in north
and east Trinidad was pounding boiled or roasted
breadfruit with a mortar and pestle to make

tom-tom. In a village with Venezuelan

descendants in north Trinidad, an elderly farmer
reported that the traditional name for breadfruit
was pandelino while chataigne was called

328

ECONOMIC BOTANY

[VOL 67

Table 1. NUMBER OF BREADFRUIT AND CHATAIGNE TREES/FARM BY REGIONS IN TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO.
Breadfruit trees/farm
Region

No. of Farms

North
East
Central
South
Tobago
All Regions

16
37
8
16
4
81

Mean

Chataigne trees/farm

SD

26.1
39.0
28.3
24.8
7.3
31.0

Median

23.6
38.9
20.0
30.5
2.6
32.6

No. of Farms

26.0
30.0
20.0
12.5
7.0
20.0

Mean

15
36
8
14
1
74

SD

24.5
22.5
61.1
49.6
5.0
32

Median

24.6
25.8
39.5
130.1
NA
61.8

12.0
15.0
54.5
15.0
NA
15.0

SD Standard Deviation; NA Not applicable.

castaa. He also described una saperota as a

dish with breadfruit boiled in rice, and un
caldo, a breadfruit soup. Cooking the immature
or mature breadfruit in curry was less familiar,
but most farmers knew of other methods of
preparing breadfruit including chips, salads, pies,
and whole baked fruits stuffed with meat or fish.
Cooking the immature fruit in a curry sauce with
coconut milk to make talkari and boiling the
seeds of the mature fruit were the methods for
preparing chataigne reported by most farmers.
Talkari and the less familiar puricrushed
breadfruit or chataigne seeds enclosed in roti
skins (similar to flat bread)were preparations of
East Indian origin.
Breadfruit and chataigne producers (68.7%
and 60.3%, respectively) reported the use of the
ripe fruits, either cooked or uncooked, and the
crushed seeds, as livestock feed. The main
domestic animals fed breadfruit and chataigne
were pigs (43.3% and 21.7%, respectively) and

poultry (25% each) according to the farmers,

while their use as feed for cattle and for wild
animals grown in captivity including the agouti
(Dasyprocta leporina) and deer (Mazama
americana ) was less well known.
The majority of farmers (70% and 54%, for
breadfruit and chataigne, respectively) were aware
of uses for other parts of the trees beside the fruits
for non-food purposes. The use of the latex as an
adhesive called laglee locally was the most
frequently reported non-food method of
utilization (55.4% and 38.6%, respectively).
The tree trunk or branches were slashed with a
sharp cutlass or machetea process referred to as
bleeding the treeto obtain latex. Boiling was
reported to make the laglee more effective. The
adhesive was used mainly to trap birds, including
those which were pests in citrus orchards.
Another use of laglee was to secure the wrapping
on the handles of cutlasses used for brush-cutting
weeds. In the treatment of strained muscles or

Table 2. PURPOSES FOR GROWING BREADFRUIT AND CHATAIGNE BY REGIONS IN TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO.
Reasons for growing breadfruit and/or chataigne by region (% of farmers) (n = 83)
Food

Income

Shade

Soil Erosion

Other

Region

Bf*

Ct**

Bf

Ct

Bf

Ct

Bf

Ct

Bf

North
East
Central
South
Tobago
Overall
regions

87.5
91.9
87.5
93.8
75.0
90.1

75.0
94.4
75.0
100.0
100.0
89.3

68.8
78.4
75.0
50.0
25.0
67.9

68.8
72.2
87.5
35.7
0.0
65.3

68.8
59.5
87.5
56.3
50.0
63.0

62.5
58.3
87.5
57.1
0.0
61.3

6.3
2.7
25.0
12.5
0.0
7.4

12.5
11.1
25.0
14.3
0.0
13.3

6.3
2.7
0.0
6.3
25.0
4.9

Ct

6.3
5.6
0.0
0.0
0.0
4.0

*Bf = Breadfruit, **Ct = Chataigne.

Chi-square tests of association showed no significant difference among regions for any reason for growing breadfruit, but
the percentage of Tobago farmers who grew chataigne for income was significantly less (P < 0.043) than that of Trinidad
farmers.

2013]

Fig. 2.

ROBERTS-NKRUMAH AND LEGALL: BREADFRUIT FOR FOOD AND INCOME

329

Farmers awareness of methods of preparation of breadfruit and chataigne as food.

ligaments in the back, chest, or at joints such

as the wrist, the laglee was spread over a piece
of cloth which was then tied to the injured
areas to draw them into their proper place.
The yellow senescing leaves of the breadfruit
were used to make a tea which was consumed
to reduce hypertension. Another use was
making the trunks of old breadfruit trees into
lumber for floors and partitions in houses, and
farmers indicated that the wood was useful if
it did not get wet.

PERCEPTIONS

ABOUT

CONSUMER APPRECIATION

Farmers in all regions, except Tobago, rated

the levels of appreciation among consumers of the
crops as food sources as high to very high (68.6%
and 65.1% for breadfruit and chataigne,
respectively), while the level of appreciation was
considered to be moderate by 18.1% and 15.7%,
and low to very low by 10.8% and 7.2%. The
remaining farmers did not respond. The farmers
thought that the major individual factors that
contributed to non-consumption of breadfruit
and chataigne were taste and cooking time.
Difficult peeling of the seeds and of the immature
fruits also discouraged use of chataigne. However,
among the other reasons, many farmers suggested
that the most important was ignorance of the
crops or their methods of preparation, or the view
held by some persons that they had eaten too
much of these foods when they were younger.

The farmers also thought that other reasons for

non-consumption included the view that
breadfruit was hog food or associated with
poverty, while chataigne was difficult to digest, or
caused flatulence, upset stomachs, and allergic
reactions.

PERCEPTIONS

OF

CONSUMER DEMAND

Farmers in south Trinidad reported high to

very high demand for breadfruit when it was in
season, followed by those in the east and north
who reported very high to moderate levels of
demand, while most farmers in central Trinidad
and Tobago generally reported low to very low
demand, or gave no response (Table 3). The
differences among regions in farmers perceptions
of levels of consumer demand for breadfruit was
significant (P < 0.02). Farmers in central and east
Trinidad reported high levels of demand for
chataigne in season, followed by those in the
south and north, where the perception of demand
was more variable. Farmers in Tobago thought
that demand for chataigne was negligible.
Over all regions except Tobago, farmers
reported that the demand had increased for
breadfruit and chataigne (61.4% and 57.8%,
respectively) in the previous ten years, compared
with those who thought that demand had
decreased (13.3% and 9.6%, for breadfruit and
chataigne, respectively) or had not changed
(13.3% and 16.9%).

31.3
8.3
37.5
28.6
100.0
21.3

ECONOMIC BOTANY

QUANTITY

25.0
8.1
37.5
25.0
0
17.3
0
2.7
0
0
25.0
2.5
12.5
11.1
0
7.1
0
9.3

0
0
0
0
0
0

Bf
Ct
Bf
Ct

Very Low

18.8
13.5
25.0
0
25.0
13.6
18.8
13.9
0
14.3
0
13.3
18.8
21.6
0
0
50.0
16.0
25.0
40.5
37.5
37.5
0
34.6
25.0
8.3
0
21.4
0
13.3
12.5
13.5
0
37.5
0
16.0
North
East
Central
South
Tobago
Total

*Bf = Breadfruit, **Ct = Chataigne, ***NR = No response.

12.5
58.3
62.5
28.6
0
42.7

Bf
Ct
Bf
Ct
Bf
Ct**
Bf*
Region

OF

FRUIT SOLD

PRICES

Low
Moderate
High
Very High

% of farmers responses about demand for breadfruit (Bf) and chataigne (Ct) (n = 83)

Table 3. FARMERS PERCEPTIONS OF DEMAND FOR BREADFRUIT AND CHATAIGNE WHEN THE CROPS WERE IN SEASON.

[VOL 67

Among breadfruit and chataigne farmers, 58%

and 52%, respectively, sold fruit to the local
market during 2008. The mean number of
breadfruit and chataigne fruits sold was 3,690
and 4,532, respectively (Table 4). Farmers from
east Trinidad sold the most breadfruit, followed
by those in the north and the south. Chataigne
was sold only by farmers in Trinidad, with those
in the south supplying most of the fruit, followed
by those in the east and north. The mean fruit
weight reported by farmers for breadfruit was 2
kg (4.4 lb) and for chataigne 0.9 kg (2 lb).
Therefore, the estimated total quantity of fruit
sold by these farmers in 2008 was 346,886 kg of
breadfruit and 150,064 kg of chataigne.

NR***

Ct

330

The most commonly reported farm gate or

wholesale price for fresh breadfruit sold to vendors
or exporters was TTD 200.00 (USD 32.00)/100
fruit (TTD 1.00 or USD 0.16/kg). Mean wholesale
price was TTD 2.19/kg ( 1.55). Farmers also sold
whole fruit at the public markets and roadside
vegetable stalls at retail prices based on weight,
which ranged from TTD 2.20 to 11.00/ kg (USD
0.34 to 1.72/kg) (mean price TTD 6.57 3.02)
depending on size, appearance, and availability. At
special public functions such as a Family Day, some
producers in north Trinidad reported selling roasted
breadfruit at TTD 22.00 (USD 3.44)/ kg and a
portion of fried chips at TTD 10.00 (USD 1.56).
Farmers reported similar farm gate and wholesale
prices for immature chataigne fruit, which might be
offered at prices as low as TTD 100.00 (USD
15.63)/100 fruit if the vendor harvested the fruit.
Mature fruit and seeds fetched TTD 2.00 and 4.00/
kg (USD 0.32 and 0.64), respectively. Mean
wholesale prices were TTD 4.14 2.28 (USD
0.65) and TTD 8.45 8.84 (USD 1.32) for mature
fruit and seeds, respectively. Retail prices were
generally 100% higher. The prices for boiled seeds
were even higher at TTD 20.00 (USD 3.13)/kg.

Discussion and Conclusion

On-farm production of breadfruit and
chataigne in Trinidad and Tobago occurs in
agroforestry systems with other tree crops, mainly
cocoa. This is a traditional production system
used for cocoa because including shade trees is a
standard recommendation for longevity and
productivity of cocoa trees (Murray 1957). This

2013]

ROBERTS-NKRUMAH AND LEGALL: BREADFRUIT FOR FOOD AND INCOME

331

Table 4. QUANTITY OF BREADFRUIT AND CHATAIGNE SOLD BY FARMERS IN 2008 BY REGION.

Breadfruit

Region

Trinidad
North
East
Central
South
Tobago
Overall

% of
farmers

56
78
43
36
25
58

Mean no. of
fruit sold /
farmer SD

3,442
4,227
1,172
3,122
750
3,690

4,926
6,015
1,110
4,563

5,379

Chataigne

Median no.
of fruit sold
/farmer

Total no.
of fruit
sold

% of
farmers

Mean no. of
fruit sold /
farmer SD

750
1,560
875
2,200
750
1,500

30,975
122,594
3,515
15,609
750
173,443

67
63
57
23
0
52

3,008 2,361
2,676 2,996
2,920 2,786
25,370 42,982
0
4,532 11,887

crop surpassed sugarcane in Trinidad as the major

export crop between 1866 and 1920. Therefore,
breadfruit and chataigne also had a prince and
pauper relationship with cocoa, because they
were not grown for economic gain, but unlike the
case with sugarcane, the association with cocoa as
shade trees contributed to financial viability. The
results of this study showed that this role is still
important because a significant proportion of
farmers grew breadfruit and chataigne for shade.
The present study showed that most farmers
grew these crops for home consumption. This
was an interesting result because it clearly
indicated that the value of breadfruit as food
was recognized by rural communities and that
appreciation for it had grown over time. While
breadfruit cultivation was more common, most
breadfruit farmers also grew chataigne. As a plant
protein source, chataigne would have been
consumed first by vegetarian Hindu indentured
laborers on the cocoa estates during the postEmancipation era. Today, it remains an
important food for families of estate owners,
many of whom are East Indian descendants, and
for the local Hindu community, particularly
during periods of religious observances that
require a vegetarian diet and at social functions
(Jankie 2010).
Although most of the farmers were less than 60
years old, the methods of breadfruit preparation
for food of which they were aware indicated that
traditional methods predominate. Similarly, while
being aware of newer preparation methods,
consumers in Trinidad reported the traditional
cooking methodsoil-down, steaming, boiling,
and fryingto be more common (RobertsNkrumah and Badrie 2005). It was also

Median no.
of fruit sold
/farmer

Total no.
of fruit
sold

3,187
1,600
2,810
910
0
2,000

30,075
58,874
11,679
76,110
0
176,738

noteworthy that some methods of preparation

were little known and seemed to be confined to
some ethnic groups. Farmers also confirmed that
taste was the single most important factor
affecting consumption of both crops as first
reported by breadfruit consumers (RobertsNkrumah and Badrie 2005). The view that
non-consumption was due to lack of knowledge
of preparation methods suggested that reduced
consumption among older persons could result in
failure to transmit this knowledge and might be
associated with increased preference for imported
foods. Some resistance to breadfruit consumption
might still persist due to negative associations
with poverty during childhood, which is not
conducive to its maintaining a place in the
familys diet, especially if economic circumstances
improve and other food choices are available.
Both crops were available and very accessible
sources of food even to the poorest persons. The
authors have observed that the quantity of fruit
sold represented approximately 50% of the
harvest, which indicates that the practice of giving
the fruits as gifts was very prevalent. Furthermore,
breadfruit wholesale prices compared favorably
with those for other locally grown starchy crops,
including cassava, yam, dasheen, eddo, and sweet
potato, which had average wholesale prices at
public markets ranging from USD 0.60 to 1.40/
kg (TTD 3.84 to 8.97) during 2008 (National
Agricultural Marketing and Development
Corporation 2012). This lower price for
breadfruit might be partly attributed to its shorter
shelf life (Sankat and Maharaj 2007). In the
previous survey among breadfruit consumers,
50% reported consuming more than 216 g/meal
(Roberts-Nkrumah and Badrie 2005).

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ECONOMIC BOTANY

The estimated quantities of breadfruit and

chataigne fruit sold by all farmers in the country
in 2008, with a 20% allowance for post-harvest
loss, were 2,764 and 2,441 tons, respectively,
which would have contributed 2.13 kg and 1.88
kg per capita to total consumption of breadfruit
and chataigne, respectively. Consumption is
expected to be higher among persons who do
not have to purchase fruit, but their relative
proportion in the total population is unknown.
The total amount of fruit available for use as food
from trees on farms and off-farm is also
unknown; however, the demand among
consumers who purchase appears to be increasing,
and the estimates of the contribution of locally
sold fruit to total consumption of breadfruit and
chataigne are low compared with those for
imported carbohydrates and vegetable protein
sources. Therefore, it is still necessary to
encourage increased consumption of breadfruit
and chataigne for greater contribution to food
and nutrition security. Increased awareness of the
methods of preparation with different cultural
influences, an expanded range of recipes that will
appeal to the youth, and minimal processing for
greater convenience (Jankie 2010) are all
strategies that may be effective in increasing
consumption.
Breadfruit and chataigne have become cash
crops for more than 50% of farmers, with prices
that were sensitive to availability and market.
Most breadfruit vendors at the public markets in
Trinidad obtained their fruit from east Trinidad,
and retail prices were lower at the larger markets
in the cities where there were the most vendors
and at the smaller rural markets closer to the areas
of production (Roberts-Nkrumah, pers. obs.).
Consistent with their perishability, the supply
chain for breadfruit and chataigne was very short
with many farmers selling fruit either at the farm
gate, at the public markets, or both. Off-farm
sales were facilitated by easy access to market by
road or by sea from Tobago. On the basis of farm
gate prices, in 2008 sales of fresh breadfruit and
chataigne were valued at USD 1,153.10 (TTD
7,380) and USD 637.30 (TTD 4079) per farmer,
respectively. Earnings would have been even
higher with retail sales, especially of chataigne
seeds. Additionally, savings on expenditure
through household consumption indirectly
contributed to the disposable income of farm
families. The National Human Development
Index, used to measure human development in

[VOL 67

terms of achievement of a long and healthy life,

education, and a decent standard of living, was
the lowest in east Trinidad (< 0.616) among all
the administrative areas in the country, as was
household income per capita per year during
2008 to 2009 (Central Statistical Office 2012).
Therefore, additional income could be
particularly important in this region, which
supplied the local markets with the most
breadfruit, the second most chataigne, and had
the most farmers.
The potential for income generation appears to
be greater since the authors estimated that the
quantity sold represented less than 30% of the
total production of both crops. Given their
relatively low prices, breadfruit and chataigne
offer the best opportunity among locally grown
starchy crops for rural communities to develop
small- to medium-scale processing of a range of
products such as flour, chips, and canned seeds to
add value and extend availability and
consumption in local and export markets. Further
opportunities for savings and income generation
also exist in the utilization for other purposes
including livestock feed (Valdivi and Alvarez
2006), insect and pest repellents (Jones et al.
2012; Roberts-Nkrumah 2007; Williams 1993),
and medicinal or pharmaceuticals (Young et al.
1993). The commercial use of the latex and of the
old trees as lumber needs to be explored.
Knowledge of most of the non-food uses of
breadfruit and chataigne was held by a small
proportion of farmers, which might indicate that
this information is being lost and that efforts
must be made now to transmit and preserve it.
These results indicate farmers awareness of
increasing consumer appreciation and demand for
breadfruit and chataigne and increased sales in
local markets in Trinidad and Tobago. Clearly
less stigma is now attached to these paupers,
which is significant for more widespread
consumption and contribution to food security,
both in farming communities and in urban areas.
As cash crops, breadfruit and chataigne can
directly increase farm income, extending their
importance beyond the indirect benefits derived
by the cocoa main crop. Their promotion for
food and nutrition security and to facilitate
development of rural communities through food
and non-food uses can enhance their status even
further with the application of the results of
already existing research and efforts to preserve
and transmit traditional knowledge.

2013]

ROBERTS-NKRUMAH AND LEGALL: BREADFRUIT FOR FOOD AND INCOME

Acknowledgments
The authors express their gratitude to the
farmers who participated in the survey and thank
the staff of the Central Statistical Office, the
Ministry of Food Production and Marine Affairs,
the Cocoa and Coffee Industry Board, the
research and technical assistants, and the
Department of Food Production for their
contributions.

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