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BSE UGC NET-JRF: World Biomes (Flora and Fauna)

Tropical Evergreen Rainforest Biome Also called optimum biome (optimum
condition for development of plants and animals). It has largest number of plant
species. Trees are the most significant members. Animal life: Vertical stratification of
the floral biome has largely affected the life forms of animals. Even animal life shows
stratification. Upper air animal community Birds like Asian Falconets, swifts, seviftlet,
curassows, tinamous, opossum, kinkajous and armadillos etc. Main canopy animal
community: Toucans, parakeet, barbets, contingas, and bill birds etc. Middle zone flying
animal community. Mostly flying birds and insectivorous bats. Middle zone climbing
animal community Squirrels and civets. Large ground animal community, Mouse deer,
cassowaries and members of pig family. Small ground animal community, Insectivorous
such as Argus, pheasant, peacocks and fowls such as Guinea fowl. Creepers or
climbers: Belong to the category of Vines. Long woody climbers are known as Lianas.
Another type of climbers is Epiphytes which do not have their roots on the ground
surface. The epiphytes provide certain habitats to micro organisms such as planarians,
earthworms, snails, woodlice, millipedes, centipedes, termites, ants, grasshoppers,
earwigs, scorpions, snakes, tree frogs, lizards and a host of insect larvae. Micro
epiphytes include moss, lichens, algae etc. Vertical stratification: There are five layers
of strata from the ground surface to the uppermost canopy of the tropical evergreen
rainforest biome: Top layer (or dominant layer) Tallest trees (3090 m) Second layer (or
codominant layer) Tress (25 30 m) Third layer Small trees Fourth layer Herbaceous
and shrub layer Fifth layer Herbaceous plants and ferns.
Monsoon Deciduous Forests Trees have large hydromorphic leaves or small, hard
xeromorphic leaves (The large hydromorphic leaves enable the trees to trap more and
more rainfall during wet seasons, but these large leaves are shed in dry periods to
conserve moisture. Where as small and hard xeromorphic leaves enable the trees to
withstand dry weather and water deficiencies.). There are numerous lianas and
epiphytes but they are less in number than the rain forest biome. Animal life There are
comparatively less number of animal species than the rain forest biome. Very small
animals microorganisms to very large bodied animals like elephants, horses,
hippopotamus, rhinos, lions etc. The biome represents the largest number of
domesticated mammals because of the development of agriculture (The lions of Gir
forest of Gujarat, together with other animals like leopards, spotted deer, sambhar deer,
Indian gazelle, Nilgai antelope, wild boar etc. Are now endangered species because of
enormous destruction of the Gir forest Ecosystem.). There are number of plant species
is less in the tropical deciduous biome than the tropical evergreen rain forest biome.
There are four strata or layers in the vertical structure of the tropical deciduous forests:
Uppermost Trees Second layer Trees Third layer Shrubs Herbaceous plants. Most trees
are deciduous. Shrubs of the third stratum are evergreen.
Savanna Biome Animals African Savanna has the largest number and greatest variety
of grazing vertebrate mammals in the world. African Buffalo, Zebra, Giraffe, Elephants,

Antelopes, Hippopotamus etc. South American and Australian Savanna do not have
large number of grazing mammals similar to the African savanna is invariably found.
Marsupials. Around 50 species of Kangaroo are found in Australia varying from the Red
Kangaroo to the small species of Wallaby. South America Large grazing mammals
including deer and guanaco. Toucans, parrots, night kingfishers, parakeets, wood
peckers are also found. Savanna Birds Courses, bustards, game birds, ostrich, gazelle
and emu. Trees have in built mechanism to reduce evapotranspirationreduced size of
leaves, sunken stomata and thickened suticles etc. Tress may have very deep roots
which can penetrate deeper into soil for water. Some trees are fire resistant (pyropytic)
as they have thick bark and thick budscales. The savanna biome is characterized by the
monotony of tree species as there are tree species as there are very few tree species
per unit area. Acacia, Baobao, Isoberlinia, Pom palm (African Savanna). Eucalyptus
such as Eucalyptus Marginata and Eucalyptus calophylla (Australia), Pine trees
(Honduras). Savanna Biome Vegetation has three distinct layers: Ground strata Grasses
and herbs. Middle layer Shrubs and woody plants. 3 Top or canopy layer Trees Savanna
grasses Hyparrhenia (elephant grass), Panicum, Pennisetum, Aridropogen and African.
Meditterenean Biome Mediterranean Biome Vegetation has sclerophyll characteristic
as they are stiff and hard and the stems have thick barks. Range from Mediterranean
mixed evergreen forests to woodland, dwarf forest and shrubs. Shrubs are differently
named: Maquis or Garrigue S. Europe Chaparral California Fybos or Fynbosch Africa
Malle Scrub Australia. To withstand dry conditions, they have some Xeromorphic
structure thickened suticles, grandular hairs, sunken stomata etc. Trees Evergreen Oak,
Deciduous Oak, Jarrah (Australia) and shrubs like Arbutus, Pistacia, Rhammus,
Ceratania etc. Animals Mule deer, Chilean Guanaco, Squirrels, Wood rats, Wolf,
Mountain lion, Grizzly bear, Rabbits, Cyote, Chilean Fox, Lizards, Snakes, birds (kites,
falcons, hawks), Quagga (a type of antelope), Bontebok (a type of antelope)
Temperate grassland Biome Vegetation In this biome comprises perennial grasses
(family Gramineae). Grass steppes. Tussock forming species of Steppe. Semi arid
Xerophytic Steppe which is associated with Chestnut soil. North American Pampas
humid and sub humid Pampas. Important grasses of Pampas include Briza, Lolium,
Paspalum, Panicum and Bromus etc. Velds of S. Africa: This may be classified into
Themada, Veld (having red grasses), Sour Veld (having grasses like Aristida, Eragrostis
and Llyparrhenia etc.) and Alpine Veld (having Festuca and Bromus along with Themada
veld) Animals Buffalo, pronghorn, antelope, wild horse, saiga antelope, guanaco, wolf,
coyote. Kangaroo and wallaroos are found in Australia. Rhea is a bird found in Pampas.
Bisons are found in N. America
The Boreal Forest Biome or Taiga biome Adapted to the extreme environmental
conditions of the Siberian type of climate of this Biome. Richest source of softwood in
the world. Important trees include Pine (white, red, scots, and jack), Fir (Douglas,
Balsam), Spruce, and larch, Birch, Poplar and Alder. Animals Caribou, Moose, Timber
wolf, Lynx, Red Squirrels, Owls and Hawks.

Tundra Biome Lithosols in this region only supports vegetation like mosses and
lichens. Animals Musk Ox, Arctic Foxes and Stoat, Reindeer and Caribau. Birds
Waterfowl.
Ducks.
Swans,
Geese
and
Ptarmigan.

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CBSE UGC NET-JRF: World Soil System The soil system is the product of environmental
and biological processes in interrelation with climate, vegetation (flora), animals
(fauna), underlying rocks, topography and time which affect the biosphere.
Components of soil
Living organisms and organic matter (5 12 %) Mineral matter (38 47 %) Soil
solution (15 35%) Soil atmosphere (10 15 %) Regolith-Loose and unconsolidated
weathered rock materials.
Soil Structure
The aggregation of individual soil particles in the form of lumps or clusters is called soil
structure. Translocation of materials through illuviation, capillary action upward
movements, melanization, leucinization, compaction and induration. Darkening of the
colour of a section of soil profile through organic matter is known as Melanization.
Lightening of the colour of a section of the soil profile mainly in the of of the soil profile
mainly in the zone of maximum eluviation is known as Leucinization. The hardening of a
section of the soil profile such as kahkar pan, iron pan, calcrete, alcrete, silcrete etc. Is
known as Induration. The process through which water percolates downward thereby
removing humus, soluble bases and sesquioxides from the upper horizon is known as
Leaching. Transformation of materials it includes processes like audification,
neutralization, oxidation, reduction, solution precipitation, hydration, dehydration,
hydrolysis, decomposition, humification and mineralization. The formation of soluble
organic metallic complexes and the dissociation of clay humus thereby making them
susceptible to leaching is known as Podzolization. In seasonally heavy rainfall region,
the silica is removed from the upper soil rather than the iron or aluminum thereby
leading to Laterization. In an anaerobic or water logged condition, the reduction of iron
takes place and this process is known as Gleyisation.
Classification of Soils
Primarily soils can be classified into Zonal, Azonal and Intrazonal soils. Zonal soils are
fully matured soils which have developed under the conditions of good soil drainage
over a long period of time. Azonal soils do not have well developed soil horizons but
there is uniformity in the soils from top toottom. Intrazonal soils are those that are
formed in waterlogged areas. Intrazonal soils have high content of calcium carbonate
soluble salts and sodium.

Zonal Soils
Zonal soils can be classified as follows: Laterite soils These are found in high rainfall
areas (e. g. Equatorial rain forests) having hot and humid conditions. It is also found in
areas of wet and dry conditions. They are charectrerised by leaching, accumulation of
sesquioxides. Crust formation, acidic nature and red color. Red soils these soils are also
found in tropical areas having high rainfall. They are highly leached having residues of
iron and aluminum oxides. This deeply weathered soil is low in fertility. Red and yellow
soils: Found in regions having high temperature and abundant rainfall. This soil is
affected by leaching, podzolization and laterization and has a well developed horizon. It
is susceptible to erosion and gives a good response to agriculture when mixed with
fertilizers. Black soils these soils are formed on the basaltic bed rock formed because of
lava flow. Such soils are highly water retentive and are good for production of dry
crops. Red Desert soils Found in arid tropical areas and is characterized by
underdeveloped horizon, coarse texture, and moderate to high fertility. This soil
becomes productive when irrigation is applied and salt content is rationalized. The most
important characteristic of these soils is the saline nature and encrustation of its
surface. Because of excessive dryness lime is brought to the surface. Chernozem Found
in temperate grassland areas of the world which receives low and light precipitation.
Thick accumulation of humus gives it a characteristic black color and therefore it is also
known Black Earth. The moderate rainfall which the region receives resulting in
balanced leaching and evaporation, does not allow the humus to percolate. Further it is
characterized by clayey texture, basic nature and high fertility. Chestnut As these are
found in the arid margins of the Chernozem belt they have lower humus content, are of
lighter color and fertile than the chernozems. Seirozems These are found in the mid
latitude continental deserts of central Asia and N. America and are characterized by
poor horizon development, low humus content, lime concentration and grey color.
Under irrigation they become productive. Podzols These are found in humid mid latitude
forests and the coniferous forest regions having moderate to low rainfall. Melting of
snow in these colder regions allow adequate water flow for leaching to take place
resulting in high acidity. Thick forest vegetation allows slow organic matter
decomposition and subsequent podzolization. Though they have low fertility, but it can
be enhanced by the addition of lime and fertilizers. Grey Drown podzolic soils: These
are found in the mid latitude deciduous forests on the western margin of continents and
parts of East Asia. They are characterized by lesser leaching and acidity and more
Humus content than podzols. They are reasonably fertile. Tundra soils These are found
along the polar margins in the Tundra region. These are characterized by acidic
reaction, slow chemical and organic changes, homogenous soil profile and low fertility.
This is a permafrost region arid is affected by water melting and logging during
summers.
Azonal Soils Azonal soils can be classified as follows Soils of a different classification
expressed in terms of soils of above classification. Entisols-Azonal soils. InceptisolsAlluvial soils Aridisols-Desert soils Mollisols-Chestnut and Chernozem Spodosols-Podzols

Alfisols-Grey Brown podzolic Ultisols-Red brown podzolic Oxisols-Laterite soils HistosolsPeaty

or
Bog
soils.

CLIMETOLOGY
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CBSE UGC NET-JRF: Air Masses (AM)

Meaning and Characteristics
An air mass may be defined as a large body of air whose physical properties, especially
temperature, moisture content, and lapse rate, are more or less uniform horizontally for
hundreds of kilometres. According to A N Strahler and A. H. Strahler: a body of air in
which the upward gradients of temperature and moisture are fairly uniform over a large
area is known as an air mass. An air mass may be so extensive that it may cover a
large portion of a continent and it may be so thick in vertical dimension that it may
vertically extend through the troposphere. An air mass is designated as cold air mass
when its temperature is lower than the underlying surface while an air mass is termed
warm air mass when its temperature is higher than the underlying surface. The
boundary between two different air masses is called front.
Source Regions
The extensive areas over which air masses originate or form are called surface regions
whose nature and properties largely determine the temperature and moisture
characteristics of air masses. An ideal source region of air mass must possess the
following essential conditions: There must be extensive and homogenous earth's
surface so that it may possess uniform temperature and moisture conditions There
should not be convergence of air; rather there should be divergence of air flow so that
the air may attain the physical properties of the region. Atmospheric conditions should
be stable for considerably long period of time so that the air may attain the
characteristics of the surface.
Regions of Air Masses
There are six major source regions of air masses on the earth's surface: Polar oceanic
areas (North Atlantic Ocean between Eurasia and North America, and Arctic region
during winter season) Tropical oceanic areas (anticyclonic areasthroughout the year)
Tropical continental areas (North AfricaSahara, Asia, Mississippi Valley zone of the USA
most developed in summers) Equatorial regions (zone located between trade
windsactive throughout the year) Monsoon lands of SE Asia
Classification of AM

There are two approaches to the classification of air masses, e. g.

Geographical Classification
Thermodynamic classification.
Geographical Classification
The geographical classification of air masses is based on the characteristic features of
the source regions. Trewartha has classified air masses on the basis of their
geographical locations into two broad categories, viz. Polar air mass (P), which originate
in the polar areas. Arctic air masses are also included in this category Tropical air mass
(T), which originate in tropical areas. Equatorial air masses are also included in this
category. These two air masses have been further divided into two types on the basis of
the nature of the surface of the source regions: Continental air masses (indicated by
small letter V) maritime air masses ( m ) Thermodynamic Modifications and
Classification of Air Masses Thermodynamic modifications of an air mass involves its
heating from below while passing through different surfaces away from the source
region. The modification of air masses depend on 4 factors: Initial characteristics of air
mass in terms of temperature and moisture content: Nature of land or water surface
over which a particular air mass moves Path followed by the air mass from the source
region to the affected area Time taken by the air mass to reach a particular destination.
A warm air mass (w) is that whose temperature is greater than the surface temperature
of the region visited while if the air mass is colder than the surface temperature it is
called cold air mass (k). Such mechanical modifications are introduced due to cyclonic
and anticyclonic conditions, Based on the thermodynamic and mechanical (dynamic)
modifications air masses are divided into: Cold air mass and warm air mass.

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CBSE UGC NET-JRF: Stability

Stability: When the dry adiabatic lapse rate of ascending dry air is higher than the
normal lapse rate and if it is not saturated and does not attain dew point, it becomes
colder than surrounding air at certain height with the result it becomes heavier and
descends. This process causes stabilityof atmospheric circulation due to which vertical
circulation of air is resisted.
When the ascending parcel of air reaches such height that its temperature equals
temperature of surrounding air, its further upward movement is stopped. Such air is
said to be in the state of neutral equilibrium.
Mechanical Instability: It is a case of abnormal conditions when the normal lapse
rate is exceptionally very high (15 degree C to 35 degree C per. lOOm.). The upper
layers are cold and denser than the underlying layers, therefore, cold and denser upper

layers automatically descend. Such situation is called mechanical instability and helps in
the formation of tornado.
Conditional Instability: When a parcel of air is forced to move upward, it cool at dry
adiabatic lapse rate (10 degree C per 1000 m. Or 5.5 degree F per 1000 feet), normal
lapse rate is 6.5 C per 1000 m. The air is initially forced to move upward but rises
automatically due to its own properties after condensation point is reached.
Dew
The earth receives radiation fromihe sun during day and reflects in the night. When the
earth reflects the heat the surface becomes cooleLand the air around it also becomes
cooler. Then the water vapour in the air condenses and then is called dew But there
are two preconditions: There must be vapour in the air; and the surface must be cool
enough to condense that water vapour. That's why after rainy season, the water vapour
content in the air increases. After the rainy season in the winter, the air becomes cool
and therefore adequate dews are formed in Oct. Nov.
Fog
It is a special type of thin cloud consisting of microscopically small water droplets which
are kept in suspension in the air near the ground surface arid reduces horizontal
visibility. Fog is generally associated with inversion of temperature and occurs in the
morning hours but sometimes also continue till noon. When there is a mixture of smoke
and fog, it becomes Smog.
Radiation Fog
Radiation fog is formed when warm and moist air lies surface. Due to this situation
overlying warm and moist aircools and the dew point is reached, with the condensation
of water vapour around hygroscopic nuclei (dust particles and smokes) forms numerous
tiny water droplet and thus fog is originated. When fog is combined with sulphur dioxide
it becomes poisonous and causes human deaths. Such fog is called urban smog.
Advectional Radiation Fog
The fog formed due to mixing of warm moist air and cold air due to arrival of warm and
moist air over cold ground surface is called advectional radiation. The fogs occurring
over sea surfaces are called sea fogs, which are generally formed, near the coastal
areas frequented by cold ocean currents.
Steam Fogs
Steam fogs are in fact advectional fogs, which are formed when cold air moves from
land over oceanic surface and there is evaporation of large quantity of moisture from
water surface to saturate the overlying cold air. They are also called evaporation fogs.
Upslope or Hill Fogs

It originate when continental warm and moist air rises upslope along the hill slopes
because the rising air is saturated due to cooling and condensation of moisture around
hygroscopic nuclei and forms fogs which cover the lower segments of hill slopes.
Frontal Fogs
Fronts are formed when two contrasting air masses (warm and cold air masses)
converge along a line. Warm air is pushed upward by cold air and hence overlying warm
air is cooled from below due to underlying warm air is cooled from below due to
underlying cold air and fogs originate after condensation.
Frost
When the temperature falls below freezing point, it forms a frost. Temperature either 0
C or less, than the water droplets take the form of ice cubes.
Rime
It is a deposit of white opaque ice crystals formed by the freezing of super cooled water
droplets
on
the
surface
below
0
C.

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CBSE UGC NET-JRF: Climatology Anticyclone Winds

Temperate Cyclone
It is also called Depressions It has low pressure at the centre and increasing pressure
outward. It has varying shapes such as near circular, elliptical or wedge, therefore, it is
also called Low or Troughs or Mid Latitude Depressions.
Secondly, they are formed in the regions extending between 35 degree to 65 degree
latitudes in both the hemispheres.
Thirdly, Tropical Cyclone is confined strictly over sea, whereas Temperate Cyclone form
over both land and sea.
Fourthly, Tropical cyclone is produced in summer and autumn and Temperate cyclone
largely in winter.
Fifthly, Temperate cyclone has low pressure gradient, whereas tropical cyclone has
steep pressure gradient; and
finally, rainfall in temperate cyclones is slow and continuous, whereas in tropical cyclone
the rainfall is violent and torrential.
Anticyclone

A system of atmospheric pressure in which the isobars on a synoptic chart indicate a

relatively, highpressure in the centre and decreasingly low pressures outwards to the
periphery of the system. The isobars are generally widely spaced, indicating light winds
which may be absent near the centre. Air movement is clockwise in the Northern
hemisphere and anticlockwise in the Southern hemisphere. The term anticyclone was
coined by Galton in 1861 Anticyclones do notexperience any precipitation and tend to
be dry. It is characterized by larger, slow moving and more persistent with a high
pressure at the centre but with a weaker pressure gradient and light variable winds
diverging from the centre. They are usually circular in shape but sometimes also
assume V shape. They are much larger in size and area than temperate cyclones as
their diameter is 75% larger than that of the latter. Anticyclones do not have fronts.
Winds descend from above at the centre and thus weather becomes clear and rainless.
Fohn Winds
(Latin: Meaning growth) A warm and relatively dry wind which descends on the leeward
side of a mountain range.
Fohn winds are:
Chinook-Andes and Rockies
Yamo-Japan
Tramontane-C. Europe
Samun-Iran
Norwester-New Zealand
Berg-S. Africa
Santa Ana-California
Zonda-Argentina
Depression Winds A moving wind involves air masses originating both on its poleward
and equatorward side, therefore, both warm and cold wind result.
Depression winds are:
Warm Winds
Sirocco-Italy
Leveche-Australia
Khamsim-Egypt
Gibli-Tunisia

Brickfielders-Victoria (Australia)
Cold Winds
Southerly Burster-New South Wales
Pampero-Argentina
Friagem or Surazo-Brazil
Papagayo-Mexico
Mistral-Rhone Valley (France)
Levanter-West Mediterranean
Etesian-East Mediterranean
Bora-Adriatic Coast
Convectional Wind: They are basically desert winds with dusty and gusty surface winds
Karaburan-Tarim
Basin Haboob-Sudan
Harmattah-West Africa
Tornadoes: A rapidly rotating column of air developed around a very intenselow
pressure centre. It is associated with a dark funnel shaped cloud and with extremely
violent wind blowing in a counterclockwise spiral; but accompanied by violent down
draughts. Common in USA.
Zones
There are four principal climate regions: Tropical (hot) Subtropical (warm) Temperate
(cool)
Polar
Regions
(cold)

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CBSE UGC NET-JRF: Atmosphere Composition

Nitrogen (N2) 78.08%
Oxygen (O2) -20.9%
Argon (Ar) -0.9%
Carbon Dioxide (C02) -0.033%. These 4 constitute 99.997%.

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Water vapour (H20) Trace Constituents: Neon (Ne) Helium (He) Krypton (Kr) Xenon
(Xe) Hydrogen (H2) ethane (CH4) Nitrous Oxide (N2O) Radon (Rn) Highly variable
constituents: Water vapour Ozone (03) Sulphur dioxide (S02) Nitrogen dioxide (N02)
Carbon Monoxide (CO) Particles (dust, salt)
Characteristics
Nitrogen: When the weathering of igneous rocks takes place, it adds nitrogen in the
atmosphere. It is found between 50 100 km. But dominates the lower 50 km.
Oxygen: It occurs up to 120 km. But up to 6 km. As 02, while above it occurs in
dissociated form or O.
Carbon dioxide: Absorbs heat radiation from the earth in the atmosphere. It is:
Transparent and keeps the earth temperature at high level. The rocks gradually remove
away the C02 from the atmosphere. It dissolves in water to form carbonic acid, a
compound i.e.. C02 + H20 = H2C03. The ocean contains 60 times more C02 than the
atmosphere.
Argon, Neon, Krypton, Xenon: Chemically inactive; present in tiny proportion; known as
noble gases. Water Vapour: Most variable in proportion and largely concentrated in the
lowest Kms. recycles in evaporation-condensation. It is mainly found in lowest region: 6
km of atmosphere. Therefore it becomes less with height. Neon: Bright Red. Used in
Neon sign, tubelights and advertisement boards.
Helium: Chemically inert. It is added in the atmosphere by the oil fields. The amount
of helium has increased 10 times. Since it is chemically inert hence it can only be lost
by escape in the space. Hydrogen: It is negligible in low atmosphere but present above
1500 km. Protons and electrons are found in hydrogen.
Ozone (03) -Absorbs ultraviolet and infrared radiation and therefore increases the.
Temperature above stratosphere. Maximum production of ozone occurs at 30 40 km
above the earth's surface but its maximum concentration occurs at 20 30 km above
the earth. Ozone hole was first sighted above Antarctica. Ozone immediately reacts with
chlorine.
Variations in Atmospheric Composition
Variation with height
Water Vapour comprises up to 4% of the atmosphere by volume near surface but non
existent above 10 km. Of the atmosphere
Ozone is mainly concentrated between 15 35 km.
100 200 km. Is the nitrogen layer
200 1, 100 km. Is the oxygen layer

1, 100 3, 500 km. Is helium layer

Above 3, 500 km. Is the oxygen layer again.
Variations with latitude and seasons
Above 30 latitude north, C02 is least
Ozone content is low over the equator and high over 50 degree north latitude,
particularly in spring.
Atmosphere can be divided into following layers:
Troposphere; Stratosphere; Mesosphere;
Magnetosphere Troposphere:

Ionosphere;

Thermosphere;

Exosphere;

Troposphere
It is the most important zone for weather phenomenon, because of: Gradual decrease
of temperature with height i.e.. 6.5 degree C per km. Temperature decreases except at
winter pole; lowest part of troposphere up to 1.5 2 km. Is called friction layer, where
topography greatly influences wind speed and circulation
It contains all the major atmosphere pollutants. This is also called Connective layer
where the clouds are formed
it roughly extends to a height of 8 kms near the poles and about 18 kms. At the
equator
the thickness at the equator is greatest
it contains dust particles and over 90% of the earth's water vapour
aviators of jet aeroplanes often avoid this layer due to presence of bumpy air pockets.
The upper limit of the troposphere is called Tropo-pause, literally means zone or region
of mixing. Its height is 17 km during January and July over the equator and the
temperature of this height is 700 C
Stratosphere
From Tropopause to about 50 Km
It is an Isothermal region and extremely dry free with clouds, water vapour and dust;
here air is at rest and movement is almost horizontal
Some clouds found are called Mother of Pearls or Nacreous.

Contains much of Ozone (03); therefore called Ozono-sphere, especially between 15

kms to 35 km from the sea level. The combining of atmosphere oxygen 02with
individual oxygen results in the creation of ozone.
In the lower stratosphere (up to 25 km.) temperature remains constant, temperature
increase gradually with height up to 50 Kms; and at 50 kms becomes 0 C or 32 F.
The upper limit of the Stratosphere is called Stratopause.
Winds decrease with height in the lower stratosphere and then increase with height in
the upper stratosphere.
Feable winds and Cirrus Clouds are found in the lower stratosphere
Chemosphere
Chemosphere extends from troposphere to an altitude of 50 kms. Overlapping both
homosphere and heterosphere.
In this air glove occurs at night especially green and red. It is a part of Stratosphere.
In this air glow occurs at night, especially green and red.
Mesosphere
Height from 50 Km to 80 Km.
The temperature decreases fairly with the height with the minimum temperature of
about-90 degree.
Mesopause (the top of the layer); above Mesopause temperature increases with
increasing height
The presence is because of meteoric dust particles.
Thermosphere
The part of the atmosphere beyond Mesopause is known as thermosphere wherein
temperature increases rapidly with increasing height.
it is above 200 km. And N02 and 02 are found.
its lower portion is composed mainly of nitrogen and oxygen in molecular and atomic
forms
rapid temperature increase approaching 1700 degree C, at 350 kms.
thermosphere is divided into two layers: (1) Ionosphere and (2) Exosphere Ionosphere:
80 kms. To 640 kms. And above

Radio waves found; it is a region of electrically charged or ionized air lying next to
Mesosphere
High electron density
150 kms. 380 kms. Known as Appleton
Absorbs deadly X-rays
The northern lights or aurora borealis are found.
This layer is called Kennelly Heaviside Layer (99 130 kms) here interaction takes
place between solar-ultra-violet photons with nitrogen
Sporadic Layer is associated with high velocity winds. The bulk of the atmosphere
consists of electrically neutral atoms and molecules. At high altitudes, however, a
significant fraction of the atmosphere is electrically charged. This region is generally
called the Ionosphere.
It extends throughout the mesosphere and thermosphere but is most important and
distinct at altitudes above about 80 kilometres.
Most of the ionization in the ionosphere is effected by pho-toionization. Photons of short
wavelength (i.e.. high energy) are absorbed by atmospheric gases. A portion of the
energy is used to eject an electron, converting a neutral atom or molecule to a pair of
charged species: An electron, which is negatively charged, and a com-panion positive
ion. Ionization in the Fl region is produced mainly by ejection of electrons from 02, 0,
and N2. The threshold for ionization of 02-corresponds to a wavelength of 102.7
nanometres. Thresholds for 02 and N2 are at 91.1 and 79.6 nanometres, respectively.
Exosphere:
640 kms and above:
The atoms of oxygen, hydrogen and helium form the tenuous atmosphere
The density becomes extremely low and the atmosphere resembles a nebula because it
is highly rarefied. Aurora Australis and Aurora Borealis are produced-magnetic storms
on the sun discharge electrified particles in the space. The earth's magnetic poles
attract these particles. Aurora Australis (the southern dawn). Aurora Borealis (the
northern dawn).
Chemical Composition
It is basically divided into two parts:
Homosphere
Heterosphere

Homosphere
It represents the lower portion of the atmosphere and extends upto the height of 90 km
from the sea-level.
The main constituent gases are Oxygen (20.946%), Nitrogen (78.084%). Others are
Argon, Carbon-dioxide, Neon, Helium, Krypton, Xenon, Hydrogen, etc.
The proportion of different gases is uniform at different levels in this zone.
Heterosphere
This zone extends from 90 km to 10, 000 km.
There are four parts of it:
Molecular nitrogen layer-it is dominated by molecular nitrogen and extends upward up
to the height of200 km (90 to 200 km)
Atomic oxygen layer: Extends from 200 to 100 km
Further upward there is helium layer which extends up to the height of 3500m
Atomic hydrogen layer-it is the top most layer of the atmosphere and extends up to the
outer
most
limit
of
the
atmosphere.

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CBSE UGC NET-JRF: Water Vapour and Evaporation

The process of transformation of liquid (water) into gaseous from is called evaporation.
The process of conversion of vapour into (water) and solid form (ice, snow, frost) is
condensation.
Latent Heat
Energy in the form of heat is required for the conversion of water into gaseous torm
(water vapor). Heat energy is generally measured in the unit of calorie.
The potential energy of water is more than ice and that of vapour is more than water.
This hidden amount of heating water is the latent heat.
Humidity Capacity
The moisture content (humidity) of the air is measured in grain per cubic foot or in
gram per cubic centimetre. Evaporation is the main mechanism through which wa-sher
is converted into humidity. Temperature and evaporation are directly positively related
and hence humidity and temperature are also directly positively related.

The moisture retaining capacity or humidity capacity refers to the capacity of an air of
certain temperature to retain maximum amount of moisture content.
Humidity capacity
temperature,

is

directly

positively

related

with

temperature

Higher

the

higher the humidity capacity and vice-versa.

The ratio of increase of humidity capacity also increases with the increasing
temperature.
Absolute Humidity
The total weight of moisture contained (water vapour) per volume of air at definite
temperature is called absolute humidity.
Evaporation is the main mechanism through which water is converted into humidity or
vapour. Temperature and evaporation are directly and positively related. The absolute
humidity decreases from equator towards thepoles and from ocean to the continents.
The possibility of preeipitation largely depends on absolute humidity.
The air having moisture content equal to its humidity capacity is called saturated
aiR'Generally absolute humidity does not change with increase or decrease of
temperature. Specific Humidity-It is defined as the mass of water vapour in grams
contained in a kg Qf air and it represents the actual quantity of moisture present in a
definite air
It is seldom affected by change in the air temperature measured in the units of weight
It is directly proportional to vapour pressure, which is the partial pressure exerted by
water vapour in the air and is independent of other gaseS'and is inversely proportional
to air pressure.
It decreases from equator to pote ward.
In real sense, specific humidity is a geographer's yardstick of a basic natural resource
water to be applied from equatorial to Polar Regions. It is a measure of quantity of
water that can be extracted from the atmosphere as precipitation.
In Arctic, it is 0.2 gm/kg. while in equatorial region, it is 18gm/kg.
Relative Humidity (RH)
Relative humidity is defined as a ratio of the amount of water
vapour actually present in the air having definite volume and temperature (i.e..
absolute humidity) to the maximum amount the air can hold (i.e.. humidity capacity).

(Relative Humidity = Absolute Humidity/Humidity Capacity) There is inverse

relationship between air temperature and relative humidity, i.e.. relative humidity
decreases with increasing temperature while it increases with decreasing tem-perature.
When the humidity capacity and absolute humidity of the air are the same, the air is
said to be saturated and relative humidity becomes lOO percent. Relative humidity (RH)
can be changed in two ways: First, if the absolute humidity increases due to additional
evaporation and secondly, change takes place temperature. Importance of RH: The
possibility of precipitation depends on it. High and low relative humidity is indicative of
the possibility of wet and dry conditions respectively. Distribution of RH: Equatorial
regions are characterized by highest relative humidity.
It gradually decreases towards subtropical high pressure belts where it becomes
minimum (between 25 -35 latitude) -Latitudes largely control seasonal distribution of
relative humidity.
Maximum R H is found during summer season between 30 Nand30 S latitudes.
Condensation
The transformation of gaseous form of water (i.e.. water vapour) into solid form (ice)
and liquid form (water) is called condensation. Condensation is opposite to evaporation.
The temperature at which an air becomes saturated is called Dew point temperature.
Condensation depends on:
the percentage of relative humidity of the air
the degree of cooling of air.
Cooling of Air and Adiabatic Change
Temperature decreases with increasing height at the rate of 6.5 C per 1000m or 3.6 F
per 1000 feet. This rate of decrease of temperature with increasing height is called
normal lapse rate.
A definite ascending air with given volume and temperature expands due to decrease in
pressure and thus cools. It is apparent that there is a change in temperature of air due
to ascent or descent but without addition or subtraction of heat. Such type of change of
temperature of air due to contraction or expansion of air is called adiabatic change of
temperature.
Adiabatic change of temperature is of two types, viz. Dry adiabatic change and moist
adiabatic change.
The temperature of unsaturated ascending air decreases with increasing height at the
rate of 5.5 F per feet or 10 C per 1000 m This type of change of temperature of
unsaturated ascending or descending air is called dry adiabatic rate.

The rate of decrease of temperature of an ascending air beyond condensation level is

lowered due to addition of latent heat of condensation of the air. This is called moist
adiabatic rate
In this case temperature of an ascending air beyond condensation level decreases (and
hence the air cools) at the rate 3 F per 1000 feet. This is also called retarded adiabatic
rate.
Stability and Instability of the Atmosphere
Different types of precipitation (dew, rainfall, frost, snowfall, hailstorm, etc.) depend on
stability and instability of the atmosphere.
The air without vertical movement is called stable air while unstable air undergoes
vertical movement.
An air mass ascends and becomes unstable when it becomes warmer than the
surrounding air mass while descending air mass becomes stable. The stability and
instability depends on the relationship between normal lapse rate and adiabatic change
in temperature.

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CBSE UGC NET-JRF: Climatology Winds Temperature is affected by:

Latitude: At high latitude there is low temperature and at low latitude, there is high
temperature due to longer and shorter distances. Thus equator will be affected due to
isolation or sunstroke and tropics will be most affected between 6 north-6 South.
Because the vertical motion is relatively rapid during its passage over the equator, but
its rate slows down as it reaches the tropic
Altitude: Places near the earth's surface are warmer, thus the temperature decreases
with the increasing height above the sea level because of the lapse rate i.e.. Every 1 km
decreases by 6.5 degree c.
Continentality: Continental Climate: Summer-70 degree F; winter-28 degree F; range42 degree F. Maritime Climate: Summer-62 degree F; winter-48 degree F; range-14
degree F.
Oceanic Currents and Winds Pressure And Planetary Winds
1. 0'-5 degree North South:
2. Called Equatorial Low Pressure Belt
3. Intense heating, with expanding air and ascending convection currents
4. It is the closest point to the sun, therefore, the air is relatively more hot due to
which, the air becomes less denser, lighter and moves upward.
5. It is called DOLDRUMS or calm

6. It is a Zone of Wind Convergence.

2. 10 -15 North and South:
Due to high pressure belt around this area, there is subtropical high pressure belt
where the air is comparatively dry, light and calm.
This is very beneficial in maritime trade, hence, is called maritime trade.
Since the air becomes hotter at the equator, it raises upward and around 30 degree
north and south starts coming down. Due to this, a high-pressure belt is created.
Hence, horse latitude i.e.. 25 -35 north and south, no wind blows.
3. 30 -45 North-South:
Subtropical High Pressure Belt
Air is comparatively dry and winds are calm and light.
It is a region of descending air currents of wind divergence with cyclonic activity
Referred as HORSE LATITUDE.
4. 30 -60 North and South:
It is the area of temperate low pressure belt or the antitrade wind area. There is rainfall
all round the year and cyclones and anti-cyclones are developed.
Comparatively, anti-trade winds are faster in southern hemisphere than in the northern
Due to Coriolis force, they become South Westerlies in the north and North Westerlies
in the south.
In the southern hemisphere, due to oceans between 40 de-gree-60 degree South
Westerlies blow with much greater force with regularity throughout the year. Here three
types of winds are found: Roaring 40s, Furious 50s, and Shrieking or Storming 50s.
5. 60 -North-South:
Two Temperate Low Pressure Belts which are also zones of convergence with cyclonic
activity
The sub-polar low pressure areas are best developed over oceans.
6. 90 -North-South
Temperatures are permanently low, are the Polar High Pressure Belt. HORSE LATITUDEThe dynamically induced subtropical high pressure belt extends between 30 -35 (25
-35 ) latitudes in both the hemispheres.

This belt separates two wind systems, viz. Trade winds and westerlies.
This zone 30 -35 is characterized by weak and variable winds and calm.
It is known as horse latitude because of the fact that in ancient times had be sailed
through the calm conditions of these latitudes.
Doldrum
A belt of low pressure, popularly known as equatorial trough of low pressure, extends
along the equator within a zone of 50 degree N and 50 degree S latitudes. This is the
belt of calm or doldrums because of light and variable winds. This belt is subjected to
seasonal and spatial variations due to northward and southward movement of the
overhead sun (summer and winter solstices). Polar Belt:
Temperature is permanently low, so this region is the high pressure belt. In the
northern hemisphere, they blow north east and in southern hemisphere, south east.
The polar easterlies blows towards the temperate low pressure belt. They are extremely
cold as they come from Tundra and Icecap region. They are more regular in the south
than the north. Planetary Winds: Winds tend to blow from the high pressure belts to the
low pressure belts, are the planetary winds. Coriolis Force or Ferrel's Law of Deflection:
Instead of blowing directly from one pressure belt to another, however the effect of the
rotation of the earth (Coriolis force) tends to deflect the direction of the winds. In the
northern hemisphere, winds are deflected to their right and in the southern hemisphere
to their left.
This is known as Ferrel's Law of Deflection.
The Coriolis Force is about along the equator but increases progressively towards the
Poles.
Trade Winds
These winds blow out from the Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belt in the northern
hemisphere towards the Equatorial low become North East Trade Winds and those in
the southern hemisphere become the South East Trade Winds. These trade winds are
the most regular of all the planetary winds.
They blow with great force and in constant direction.
Therefore, helpful to traders to sail. Trade winds bring heavy rainfall.
They sometimes contain intense depressions.
The word trade comes from the Saxon word tredan which means to tread or follow a
regular path.

They blow from north-east towards the equator, in the northern hemisphere and from
south-east towards the equator, in the southern hemisphere.
Permanent Winds
They blow throughout the equator.
Westerlies
From the Subtropical High Pressure Belts, winds blow towards the Temperature Low
Pressure Belts.
Under the effect of Coriolis Force, they become the South-Westerlies in the northern
hemisphere and North-Westerlies in the southern hemisphere.
This warming effect and other local pressure differences have resulted in a very variable
climate in the temperature zones, dominated by the movement of cyclones and anticyclones.
In the southern hemisphere, where there is a large expanse of ocean, from 40 degree
south to 60 degree south; westerlies blow with much greater force and regularity
throughout the year.
There is much variation in the weather conditions in their poleward parts where there is
convergence of cold and denser polar winds and warms and lighter westerlies.
Their velocity increases south ward and they become. Stormy. They are also associated
with boisterous gales. The velocity of the westerlies be-cpme so great that they are
called:
Roaring forties between the latitudes 40 50 degree S
Furious fifties at 50 degree S latitude
Shrieking sixties at 60 degree S'latitude. Polar Easterlies:
It blows from the Polar Easterlies towards the Temperate Low Pressure Belts.
It is extremely cold winds as it comes from Tundra and Ice-Cap regions. y It is more
regular in the south than in the north.
It is defected to the right to become the N. E. Polar Winds in the Northern Hemisphere
and to the left to become the S. E. Poter Winds in the Southern Hemisphere.
These polar cold winds converge with warm westerlies near 60 65 latitudes and form
polar front or mid-latitude front or mid-latitude front, which becomes the centre for the
origin of temperate cyclones.
Fohn and Chinook

Fohn is a warm, dry and local wind-Northern Alps-Switzerland in spring; and called
climate oasis.
Chinook is a warm, dry and local wind-Eastern slopes in Rockies in USA and Canada in
winters.
It increases temperature 35 degree F within 15 minutes.
It causes Avalanches.
In North America, it is called Chinook, meaning the snow eater
Chinook winds are more common during winter and early spring along the eastern
slopes (leeward side) of the Rocky Mountains from Colorado (USA) in the south to
British Columbia (Canada).
Sirocco
Sirocco is a warm, dry and dusty local wind, which blows in northerly direction from
Sahara desert and after crossing over the Mediterranean Sea, reaches Italy and Spain.
Becomes extremely warm and dry while descending through the northern slopes of the
Atlas Mountain.
It is known as Khamsin in Egypt; Gibli in Libya; Chili in Tunisia; Simoom in Arabian
Desert; Blood Rain in South Italy; Leveche in Spain; Gharbi in Adriatic and Aegean Sea.
Mistral
It is a cold wind which blows in Spain and France from North-east direction; especially
in winter
The average velocity of mistral is 56 64 km/h to 128 kmph Bora:
Bora is an extremely cold and dry north-easterly wind in Adriatic Sea, with a velocity of
128 kmph to 196 kmph
It is also called Tramontana and Gregale. Harmattan:
It is warm and dry winds blowing from north-east and east to west in the eastern part
of Sahara desert.
Called as Doctor in Guinea coastal of Western Africa
Called Brickfielder in Victoria in Australia; Blackroller in the Great plains of USA; Shamal
in Mesopotamia; Norwester in New Zealand.
Blizzard

It is a violent stormy cold and powdery polar wind laden with dry snow and is prevalent
in North and South polar regions, Siberia, Canada and the USA.
Northers in the Southern USA and Burran in Siberia. Tropical Cyclones: Typhoons: It
occurs mainly in the region 6 degree and 20 degree North and South of the equator and
are most frequent from July to October. It's velocity is 100 m. p. h. Torrential downpour
is accompanied by Thunder and Lightening. Hurricanes: Same feature, but only differs
in intensity, duration and locality. It has calm, rainless centres, where pressure is
lowest.
Tornadoes
Its velocity is 500 m. p. h. It appears as a dark funnel cloud. 250 1400 ft. In
diameter. It is most frequent in spring.

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CBSE UGC NET-JRF: Cyclones

Cyclone is a system of low atmospheric pressure in which the barometric gradient is
steep. Winds circulate, blowing inwards in an anticlockwise direction in the Northern
hemisphere and clockwise direction in the Southern hemisphere. Cyclones are classified
into two parts:
Tropical Cyclone
A system of low pressure occurring in tropical latitudes, characterized by its very strong
winds; found mainly in Indian Ocean, Indonesia, and Australia. Tropical Disturbances
are classified into three parts:
A Tropical Depression is a system with low pressure enclosed within few isobars and the
wind speed is. 33 knot or 61 tens and it lacks a marked circulation.
A Tropical Storm is a system with several closed isobars and a wind circulation of 115
Kms.
A Tropical Cyclones is a warm core vortex circulation of tropical origin with a small
diameter often of an approximately circular shape; they occur only in oceanic areas
where the sea temperatures exceed 27 degree C.
Different Names of Tropical Cyclones
Hurricanes-N. America & Caribbean
Typhoons-Western North Pacific
Willywillies-Australia

Bagulo-Philippine Islands
Taifu-Japan
Cyclones-Indian Ocean
Structure of the Tropical Cyclones
Eye the innermost or central portion of the mature cyclone is the eye It is about 10 to
30 km in diameter, depending upon the size of the. Storm and is a more. Or less calm
region with little or no clouds and some subsidence. The eye or the calm centre can be
described variously as the: Pressure eye (where mean sea level pressure is lowest),
Wind eye (light or calm wind conditions), Radar eye (the eye seen in radar echoes) and
the Satellite eye (clear or dark spot seen in the cloud mass in satellite imagery).
Eye Wall or Inner Ring Surrounding the eye is a tight inner ring of hurricane winds.
This core of maximum winds is at the centre of a solid thick wall of towering
Cumulonimbus clouds and is called the eye wall
Outer Ring An outer ring of cyclonic circulation lies beyond the eye wall, where the
speed decreases steeply and clouds and rain diminish rapidly outwards.
It is essentially radially symmetrical
It has six regions
The eye is the centre of the storm which is characterised by more or less circular with
comparatively clear skies, lowest pressure, the highest temperature and highest relative
humidities
The eye is surrounded by a wall of cumulonimbus known as eyeball. Strongest wind is
found
Spiral bands or Rainbands or Feeder bands contain many individual thunderstorms
which produce heavy rainfall
Annular zone is characterized by cloudiness and high temperatures and low humidities
Outer Convective band
Main cloudmass. Horizontal structure of tropical cyclone.

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CBSE UGC NET-JRF: Atmospheric Pressure

Air has weight and therefore it exerts air pressure or atmospheric pressure. Pressure is
felt maximum at the surface and it decreases with height.

It is about 2.7 kg per sq. Cm i.e.. 1013.2 millibar, water vapour decreases the pressure,
the movement of the earth also affects pressure.
At the equator earth rotates with a speed of 1600 km/hour and completes a distance of
40, 000 km in 24 hour.
Speed decreases as it goes up and down:
At 45 degree latitude speed is 1100 km/hour and becomes 0 degree at the poles,
therefore after 60 degree latitude air pressure is constant.
Types Of Atmospheric Pressure
Vertical distribution of pressure-the pressure is highest at surface and at every 300 m
above the earth the pressure decreases by 34 millibar. At 5, 500 m. Pressure reduces to
half and 1/4th at 11000m.
Horizontal distribution of pressure-In January, sun is tilted towards south and therefore
in the southern hemisphere there is low-pressure belt. Therefore in Eurasia and North
America high pressure is developed with low temperature. In July, at Atlantic and Pacific
ocean low pressure is developed especially Icelandic and Aleutianic. On the other hand,
when the sun is tilted towards north low pressure is shifted to Asia and Africa. However
in the lower Asia, Africa, South Pacific Ocean and South Atlantic Ocean high pressure is
developed.
7 pressure belts
Equatorial Low Pressure Belt
North of Capricorn-High Pressure Belt
South Of Cancer-High Pressure Belt
66 degree North Low Pressure Belt (Northern sub-Polar region)
6 degree South low Pressure Belt (Southern sub-Polar region)
North Pole High Pressure Belt
South Pole High Pressure Belt
Relation between Pressure and Wind
The temperature increases when wind expands and density decreases and when the
temperature Jails, winds contracts and density increases. Therefore, where temperature
is increased, density is lowered and any reduction in temperature produces high
pressure.

The earth rotates west to east and therefore, it produces centrifugal force and due to
this force, there is change in the direction of the wind. There are three laws related to it
Ferrel's Law: In the northern hemisphere, wind deflects towards right and in the
southern hemisphere it is vice-versa. This means that in the north-em hemisphere, the
wind deflects clockwise and in the southern anti-clockwise. This is called deflection of
wind and because of high and low pressure the wind tends to be deflected instead of
being straightened.
Buisballot's Law: In north hemisphere at the right side of your backside, there would be
high pressure and at the left, low pressure. In the south, it is vice-versa. This would
help in determination of appropriate direction.
Hadley's Law: In the northern hemisphere the wind from north to south deviates right
and in the southern hemi-sphere, from south to north deviates to the left. The left from
east to west does not deflect according to this law. Clouds: Clouds are defined as
aggregates of innumerable tiny water droplets, ice-particles of mixture of both in the
air, generally above the ground surface
Acid Rain
Acidity measured by pH. PH scale runs from 1 to 14 measures the balance of Hydrogen
ions (H + ) & Hydroxide ions (OH) in a 14 point scale
Positive and negative balance is pH7.
If there are more hydrogen ions than hydroxide ion, the pH is less than the solution is
termed acidic, the lower the pH, the higher the acid content. Rainfall-somewhat acidic
pH: 5.5 to 6 0.
Condensation
The process of change of water vapour into liquid form is called condensation.
Therefore, condensation is opposite to vaporization Surface Tension: Water has the
highest surface tension of any liquid except mercury. Surface tension is the attraction of
molecules of each other.
Humidity
Humidity: Water in gaseous form or water vapour in the atmosphere is referred to as
humidity. It can also be defined as the number of molecules of water/unit volume.
Vapour Pressure: Vapour pressure is simply the pressure, exerted by the water vapour
content. Its value increases as the temperature increases.
Specific Humidity: Specific humidity is the ratio of the weight of moist vapour (gms) to
the weight of moist air. Represents the actual quantity of moisture in a definite air. It
decreases fmm equator to poles. In Arctic it is 0.2 gm./kg. while in equatorial region, it
is 18 gm./kg. It is used in Climatology Absolute Humidity:

Absolute humidity of the air is the mass or weight of vapour per unit volume of air
Relative Humidity: It is defined as the ratio of the amount of water vapour actually
present in the air having definite volume and temperature (Absolute humidity) to the
maximum amount the air can hold.
Forms of Condensation
Mist: Forms on wet surface, lakes or rivers where the hu-midity is high and
condensation in evening was led to wisps of mist over the fields and water especially in
sheltered spots.
Rime: It is a deposit of white opaque ice crystals formed by the freezing of super cooled
water droplets on the surface. Below 0 degree C. Smog: Smoke and Fog.
Normal lapse rate: 6.5 degree C/thousand m. Or 3.5 degree F/thousand feet.
Dew Point
The temperature at which air becomes saturated is called Dew Point.
The vapour is limited. If the volume of vapour increases but there may be a point at
which the vapour cannot be incorporated, this is called saturation point.
Dew points are the temperaing winter than summer.
Regional Distribution
According to the ancient Greek thinkers the globe is divided into three temperature
zones on the basis of latitudes: Tropical Zone-Extends between the tropics of Cancer
(23.50N) and Capricorn (23.50S).
The sun is more or less vertical on the equator throughout the year.
There is no winter around the equator because of high temperature prevailing
throughout the year.
Temperate Zone
Extends between 23.5 and 66.5 latitudes in both the hemispheres.
There is a marked seasonal contrast with the northward and southward migration of the
overhead sun
The range of temperature is exceptionally high.
Frigid Zone
Extends between 66.5 latitudes and the poles in both the hemispheres.

More oblique sun's rays throughout the year resulting into exceptionally very low
temperature characterize it.
The length of day and night is more than 24 hrs. Isanomalous Temperature
The difference ot observed temperature of a place and the mean temperature of the
latitude passing through that places called thermal anomaly.
For example, if the average temperature of 30 N latitude is 20 C and the
temperature of S place located on the latitude is 30 C, then the thermal anomaly is
of 10
If the observed temperature of a particular place is more than the mean temperature of
the latitude of that place, the thermal anomaly is called positive thermal anomaly, but if
the observed temperature of a given place is less than that of the latitude of that place
then it becomes negative thermal anomaly.
The equal thermal anomaly of several places is called isanomalous temperature and the
lines drawn on the world map joining places of equal thermal anomaly are called
isanomals.

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CBSE UGC NET-JRF: Types of Rainfall

Conventional Rainfall
Occur due to thermal convention currents caused due to insolational heating of ground
surface.
Prevalent especially in equatorial areas
Warm air rises up and expands, then reaches at a cooler layer and saturates and then
condenses mainly in the form of cumulus or cumulonimbus clouds and normally
precipitation takes place in the second half of the noon
Also rains in the tropical, subtropical and little in temperate regions
But there must be two pre conditions:
Abundant supply of moisture through evaporation to air so that relative humidity
becomes high
Intense heating of ground surface through incoming shortwave electromagnetic solar
radiations. Features of Conventional rainfall
It occurs daily in the afternoon in the equatorial region.

It is for very short duration but occurs in the form of heavy showers.
They make Cumulonimbus clouds.
In hot deserts it is not regular, but is irregular and sudden.
Cyclonic or frontal rainfall
Occur due to upward movement of air caused by convergence of extensive air masses
It happens due to the convergence of two different air masses with different
temperature. The worm air rises over cold air and cyclonic rain occurs
Cold air pushes up warm air and the sky is clear again.
Orographic Rainfall
Orographic Rainfall occurs due to ascent of air forced by mountain barrier. The
preconditions are:
there should be mountain barrier across the wind direction, so that the moist air is
forced on obstruction to move upward e. g. Aravali in Rajasthan is parallel to Arabian
Sea and thus forms rain shadow area
there should be sufficient moisture in the air
the height of the mountain also affects rainfall
if the height is more but more distance from sea, lesser rainfall; if the height is less but
nearer to sea, more rainfall.
Features of Orographic rainfall
The windward slope. E. g. Mangalore is located in the western windward slope and
receives 2, 000 mm of rainfall, whereas Bangalore is in rain shadow area and hardly
receives 500 mm. Rainfall. Similarly Coast Ranges of North America receives 2, 000
mm. But eastern slope doesn't.
The maximum rainfall occurs near the mountain slope and decreases away from the
foothills. E. g. In Shimla, 1520 mm. Nainital, 2, 000 mm. And Darjeeling receives 3150
mm. Rainfall because Darjeeling is nearest to Himalayan slopes. Patna 1000 mm.
Allahabad 1050 and Delhi 650 mm.
If mountain is of moderate height, the maximum rainfall doesn't occur at the top rather
it occurs on the other side.
Cumulus clouds while the leeward side by Stratus clouds characterizes the windward
slope of mountain at the time of rainfall.

The amount of rainfall increases with increasing height along the windward slope of
mountain up to a certain height but the amount of rain decreases with increasing height
because of marked decrease in the moisture content of air. This situation is called
inversion of rainfall
This type of rainfall may occur in any season. Inversion Point: Maximum rainfall line is
at 24, 000 feet or 7, 000 m. At the equator whereas in the Himalayas, it is 12, 000 feet
or 3600 m. at Alps 21, 000 or 6, 300 m. And at Pyrenees mountain 18, 00012, 000
feet.
Distribution of Rainfall
Rainfall is related with air temperature and atmospheric humidity, while humidity is
closely related with temperature through the process of evaporation.
The regions having high temperature and abundance of water receive higher amount of
rainfall e. g. Equatorial regions.
SubTropical regions also have the same conditions but the western parts receive least
rainfall due to anticyclonic conditions.
Mean annual rainfall for the whole globe is 970 mm. But is unevenly distributed.
Some places receive less than 100 mm. Of rainfall e. g. Hot deserts like Kalahari, Thar
etc. while some receive more than 12, 000 mm. Like Cherrapunji in India.
The equatorial regions receive rainfall throughout the year, while the other areas have
seasonal rainfall.
The Mediterranean region receives most of the annual rainfall during winters.
Other Forms of Precipitation
Ice: If the temperature of the entire atmosphere is below 0 C, the condensation will
lead to ice formation and snowfall.
Snowfall: The fall of larger snowflakes from the clouds on the ground surface is called
snowfall. It occurs when the freezing level is less than 300m from the ground surface.
These crystals reach the ground, without being melted in a solid, form of precipitation
as snow
Sleet: In UK it refers to a mixture of snow and rain but in American terminology it
means falling of small pellets of transparent and translucent ice having a diameter of 5
mm. Or less.
Hail: It consists of large pellets or spheres of ice. In fact hail is a form of solid
precipitation wherein small balls or pieces of ice, Known as. Hail or stones, having a
diameter of 550 mm fall downward as hail storms! They are very destructive and

dreaded form of solid precipitation because they destroy agricultural crops and claim
human and animal life. After condensation, if the temperature is below 0 degree C, than
the water drops would take the form of hails.
Drizzle: The fall of numerous uniform minute droplets of water having diameter of less
than 0.5 mm. Is called drizzle. They fall continuously from low stratus clouds but the
total amount of water received on the ground surface is significantly.

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CBSE UGC NET-JRF: Rainfall

Origin of Rainfall
The presence of warm, moist and unstable air and sufficient number of hygroscopic
nuclei are prerequisite condition for rainfall.
The warm and moist air after being lifted upward becomes saturated and clouds are
formed after condensation of water vapour around hygroscopic nuclei (salt and dust
particles) but still there may not be rainfall unless the air is supersaturated.
The process of condensation begins only when the relative humidity of ascending air
becomes 100% and the air is further cooled through dry adiabatic lapse but first
condensation occurs around larger hygroscopic nuclei only. Such droplets are called
cloud droplets.
Condensation
For condensation there are following pre conditions:
The air becomes warm and goes vertical and then spreads
To come into contact of warm air with high mountains and then to climb over then and
to come close to the top layer of ice and become cool
To become cool by approaching the colder latitudes
To come in contact with colder air or currents.
Theories of Rainfall Cloud Instability
Theory of Bergeron Findeisen: This theory was postulated in 1933; also called Icecrystal
theory.
This theory is based on the fact that relative humidity of air is greater with respect to
an icesurface than with respect to water surface.

Air temperature ranges between 5 C to 25 C, then water droplets become

supersaturated.
The aggregation of ice crystals is more prevalent when air temperature ranges between
0 degree to 50 degree C
When the ice crystals fall and pass through layer of air with temperature more than 0
degree C, they change into raindrops.
Collision Theory
The Bergeron process could not explain the mechanism of rainfall in tropical areas.
The Collision Theory involving collision, coalescence and sweeping for the formation and
growth of rain drops was postulated by many meteorologists.
According to this theory, the collision may cause splitting and scattering of cloud
droplets.
Longmuir modified this theory saying that the larger drops fall with greater velocity
than smaller drops hence absorbing them.

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CBSE UGC NET-JRF: Ecosystem The term ecosystem refers to the combined physical
and biological components of an environment. An ecosystem is generally an area within
the natural environment in which physical (abiotic) factors of the environment, such as
rocks and soil, function together along with interdependent (biotic) organisms, such as
plants and animals, within the same habitat. Ecosystems can be permanent or
temporary. Ecosystems usually form a number of food webs. Central to the ecosystem
concept is the idea that living organisms interact with every other element in their local
environment. Eugene Odum, a founder of ecology, stated: Any unit that includes all of
the organisms (i.e.: The community ) in a given area interacting with the physical
environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined trophic structure, biotic
diversity, and material cycles (i.e.: Exchange of materials between living and nonliving
parts) within the system is an ecosystem. The human ecosystem concept is then
grounded in the deconstruction of the human/nature dichotomy and the premise that all
species are ecologically integrated with each other, as well as with the abiotic
constituents of their biotope. Etymology The term ecosystem was coined in 1930 by
Roy Clapham to mean the combined physical and biological components of an
environment. British ecologist Arthur Tansley later refined the term, describing it as
The whole system, including not only the organism-complex, but also the whole
complex of physical factors forming what we call the environment Tansley regarded
ecosystems not simply as natural units, but as mental isolates. Tansley later defined the
spatial extent of ecosystems using the term ecotope. Examples of ecosystems
Agroecosystem Aquatic ecosystem Chaparral Coral reef Desert Forest Greater

Yellowstone Ecosystem Human ecosystem Large marine ecosystem Littoral zone Marine
ecosystem Prairie Rainforest Savanna Subsurface Lithoautotrophic Microbial Ecosystem
Taiga Tundra Urban ecosystem Biomes Biomes are similar to ecosystems, and are
climatically and geographically defined areas of ecologically similar climatic conditions
such as communities of plants, animals, and soil organisms, often referred to as
ecosystems. Biomes are defined based on factors such as plant structures (such as
trees, shrubs, and grasses), leaf types (such as broadleaf and needleleaf), plant
spacing (forest, woodland, savanna), and climate. Unlike ecozones, biomes are not
defined by genetic, taxonomic, or historical similarities. Biomes are often identified with
particular patterns of ecological succession and climax vegetation. A fundamental
classification of biomes is: Terrestrial (land) biomes Freshwater biomes Marine biomes
Ecosystem Classification Ecosystems have become particularly important politically,
since the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) -ratified by 192 countries-defines
the protection of ecosystems, natural habitats and the maintenance of viable
populations of species in natural surroundings as a commitment of ratifying countries.
This has created the political necessity to spatially identify ecosystems and somehow
distinguish among them. The CBD defines an ecosystem as a dynamic complex of
plant, animal and micro-organism communities and their non-living environment
interacting as a functional unit With the need of protecting ecosystems, the political
need arose to describe and identify them efficiently. Vreugdenhil et al. Argued that this
could be achieved most effectively by using a physiognomic-ecological classification
system, as ecosystems are easily recognizable in the field as well as on satellite
images. They argued that the structure and seasonality of the associated vegetation,
complemented with ecological data (such as elevation, humidity, and drainage), are
each determining modifiers that separate partially distinct sets of species. This is true
not only for plant species, but also for species of animals, fungi and bacteria. The
degree of ecosystem distinction is subject to the physiognomic modifiers that can be
identified on an image and/or in the field. Where necessary, specific fauna elements can
be added, such as seasonal concentrations of animals and the distribution of coral reefs.
Several aquatic classification systems are available, and an effort is being made by the
United States Geological Survey (USGS) and the Inter-American Biodiversity
Information Network (IABIN) to design a complete ecosystem classification system that
will cover both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. From a philosophy of science
perspective, ecosystems are not discrete units of nature that simply can be identified
using the right classification approach. In agreement with the definition by Tansley
( mental isolates ), any attempt to delineate or classify ecosystems should be explicit
about the observer/analyst input in the classification including its normative rationale.
Several physiognomic-ecological classification systems are available: PhysiognomicEcological Classification of Plant Formations of the Earth: a system based on the 1974
work of Mueller-Dombois and Heinz Ellenberg, and developed by UNESCO. This
classificatie describes the above-ground or underwater vegetation structures and cover
as observed in the field, described as plant life forms. This classification is
fundamentally
a
species-independent
physiognomic,
hierarchical
vegetation
classification system which also takes into account ecological factors such as climate,

elevation, human influences such as grazing, hydric regimes, and survival strategies
such as seasonality. The system was expanded with a basic classification for open water
formations Land Cover Classification System (LCCS), developed by the Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO). Forest-Range Environmental Study Ecosystems (FRES)
developed by the United States Forest Service for use in the United States. Ecosystem
services Ecosystem services are fundamental life-support services upon which human
civilization depends, i and can be direct or indirect. Examples of direct ecosystem
services are: Pollination, wood, and erosion prevention. Indirect services could be
considered climate moderation, nutrient cycles, and detoxifying natural substances. The
services and goods an ecosystem provides are often undervalued as many of them are
without market value. Broad examples include: regulating (climate, floods, nutrient
balance, water filtration) provisioning (food, medicine, fur) cultural (science, spiritual,
ceremonial, recreation, aesthetic) supporting (nutrient cycling, photosynthesis, soil
formation). Ecosystem legal rights Ecuador's new constitution of 2008 is the first in the
world to recognize legally enforceable Rights of Nature, or ecosystem rights. The
borough of Tamaqua, Pennsylvania passed a law giving ecosystems legal rights. The
ordinance establishes that the municipal government or any Tamaqua resident can file a
lawsuit on behalf of the local ecosystem. Other townships, such as Rush, followed suit
and passed their own laws. This is part of a growing body of legal opinion proposing
wild law Wild law, a term coined by Cormac Cullinan (a lawyer based in South Africa),
would cover birds and animals, rivers and deserts. Function and biodiversity Some of
the biodiversity of a coral reef From an anthropocentric point of view, some people
perceive ecosystems as production units that produce goods and services, such as wood
by forest ecosystems and grass for cattle by natural grasslands. Meat from wild
animals, often referred to as bush meat in Africa, has proven to be extremely successful
under well-controlled management schemes in South Africa and Kenya. Much less
successful has been the discovery and commercialization of substances of wild organism
for pharmaceutical purposes. Services derived from ecosystems are referred to as
ecosystem services. They may include (1) facilitating the enjoyment of nature, which
may generate many forms of income and employment in the tourism sector, often
referred to as eco-tourisms (2), water retention, thus facilitating a more evenly
distributed release of water (3), soil protection, open-air laboratory for scientific
research, etc. A greater degree of species or biological diversity-popularly referred to as
Biodiversity-of an ecosystem may contribute to greater resilience of an ecosystem,
because there are more species present at a location to respond to change and thus
absorb or reduce its effects. This reduces the effect before the ecosystem's structure
is fundamentally changed to a different state. This is not universally the case and there
is no proven relationship between the species diversity of an ecosystem and its ability
to provide goods and services on a sustainable level: Humid tropical forests produce
very few goods and direct services and are extremely vulnerable to change, while many
temperate forests readily grow back to their previous state of development within a
lifetime after felling or a forest fire. Some grasslands have been sustainably exploited
for thousands of years (Mongolia, Africa, European peat and mooreland communities).
The study of ecosystems Introduction of new elements, whether biotic or abiotic, into

an ecosystem tend to have a disruptive effect. In some cases, this can lead to
ecological collapse or trophic cascading and the death of many species within the
ecosystem. Under this deterministic vision, the abstract notion of ecological health
attempts to measure the robustness and recovery capacity for an ecosystem; i.e.. How
far the ecosystem is away from its steady state. Often, however, ecosystems have the
ability to rebound from a disruptive agent. The difference between collapse or a gentle
rebound is determined by two factors the toxicity of the introduced element and the
resiliency of the original ecosystem. Ecosystems are primarily governed by stochastic
(chance) events, the reactions these events provoke on non-living materials, and the
responses by organisms to the conditions surrounding them. Thus, an ecosystem
results from the sum of individual responses of organisms to stimuli from elements in
the environment. The presence or absence of populations merely depends on
reproductive and dispersal success, and population levels fluctuate in response to
stochastic events. As the number of species in an ecosystem is higher, the number of
stimuli is also higher. Since the beginning of life organisms have survived continuous
change through natural selection of successful feeding, reproductive and dispersal
behavior. Through natural selection the planet's species have continuously adapted to
change through variation in their biological composition and distribution. Mathematically
it can be demonstrated that greater numbers of different interacting factors tend to
dampen fluctuations in each of the individual factors. Given the great diversity among
organisms on earth, most ecosystems only changed very gradually, as some species
would disappear while others would move in. Locally, sub-populations continuously go
extinct, to be replaced later through dispersal of other sub-populations. Stochastists do
recognize that certain intrinsic regulating mechanisms occur in nature. Feedback and
response mechanisms at the species level regulate population levels, most notably
through territorial behaviour. Andrewatha and Birch suggest that territorial behaviour
tends to keep populations at levels where food supply is not a limiting factor. Hence,
stochastists see territorial behaviour as a regulatory mechanism at the species level but
not at the ecosystem level. Thus, in their vision, ecosystems are not regulated by
feedback and response mechanisms from the (eco) system itself and there is no such
thing as a balance of nature. If ecosystems are governed primarily by stochastic
processes, through which its subsequent state would be determined by both predictable
and random actions, they may be more resilient to sudden change than each species
individually. In the absence of a balance of nature, the species composition of
ecosystems would undergo shifts that would depend on the nature of the change, but
entire ecological collapse would probably be infrequent events. Arctic tundra on Wrangel
Island, Russia The theoretical ecologist Robert Ulanowicz has used information theory
tools to describe the structure of ecosystems, emphasizing mutual information
(correlations) in studied systems. Drawing on this methodology and prior observations
of complex ecosystems, Ulanowicz depicts approaches to determining the stress levels
on ecosystems and predicting system reactions to defined types of alteration in their
settings such as increased or reduced energy flow, and eutrophication. Ecosystem
ecology Ecosystem ecology is the integrated study of biotic and abiotic components of
ecosystems and their interactions within an ecosystem framework. This science

examines how ecosystems work and relates this to their components such as chemicals,
bedrock, soil, plants, and animals. Ecosystem ecology examines physical and biological
structure
and
examines
how
these
ecosystem
characteristics
interact.
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CBSE UGC NET-JRF: Environmental education Environmental education (EE) refers to

organized efforts to teach about how natural environments function and, particularly,
how human beings can manage their behavior and ecosystems in order to live
sustainably. The term is often used to imply education within the school system, from
primary to post-secondary. However, it is sometimes used more broadly to include all
efforts to educate the public and other audiences, including print materials, websites,
media campaigns, etc. Related disciplines include outdoor education and experiential
education. Environmental education is a learning process that increases people's
knowledge and awareness about the environment and associated challenges, develops
the necessary skills and expertise to address the challenges, and fosters attitudes,
motivations, and commitments to make informed decisions and take responsible action
(UNESCO, Tbilisi Declaration, 1978). Focus of EE EE focuses on: Awareness and
sentivity about the environment and environmental challenges-Knowledge and
understanding about the environment and environmental challenges-Attitude concern
for the environment and help to maintain environmental quality-Skills to mitigate the
environmental problems-Participation for exercising existing knowledge and
environmental related programmes. History The roots of environmental education can
be traced back as early as the 18th century when Jean-Jacques Rousseau stressed the
importance of an education that focuses on the environment in Emile: Or, On Education.
Several decades later, Louis Agassiz, a Swiss-born naturalist, echoed Rousseau's
philosophy as he encouraged students to Study nature, not books. These two influential
scholars helped lay the foundation for a concrete environmental education program,
known as Nature study, which took place in the late 19th century and early 20th
century. The nature study movement used fables and moral lessons to help students
develop an appreciation of nature and embrace the natural world. Anna Botsford
Comstock, the head of the Department of Nature Study at Cornell University, was a
prominent figure in the nature study movement and wrote the Handbook for Nature
Study in 1911, which used nature to educate children on cultural values. Cornstock and
the other leaders of the movement, such as Liberty Hyde Bailey, helped Nature Study
garner tremendous amounts of support from community leaders, teachers, and
scientists and change the science curriculum for children across the United States. A
new type of environmental education, Conservation Education, emerged as a result of
the Great Depression and Dust Bowl during the 1920s and 1930s. Conservation
Education dealt with the natural world in a drastically different way from Nature Study

because it focused on rigorous scientific training rather than natural history.

Conservation Education was a major scientific management and planning tool that
helped solve social, economic, and environmental problems during this time period. The
modern environmental education movement, which gained significant momentum in the
late 1960s and early 1970s, stems from Nature Study and Conservation Education.
During this time period, many events such as Civil Rights, the Vietnam War, and the
Cold War placed Americans at odds with one another and the US government. However,
as more people began to fear the fallout from radiation, the chemical pesticides
mentioned in Rachel Carson's Silent Spring, and the significant amounts of air pollution
and waste, the public's concern for their health and the health of their natural
environment led to a unifying phenomenon known as environmentalism. Ultimately, the
first Earth Day on April 22nd, 1970 a national teach-in about environmental problems
paved the way for the modern environmental education movement. Later that same
year, President Nixon passed the National Environmental Education Act, which was
intended to incorporate environmental education into K 12 schools. Then, in 1971,
the National Association for Environmental Education (now known as the North
American Association for Environmental Education) was created to improve
environmental literacy by providing resources to teachers and promoting environmental
education programs. Internationally, environmental education gained recognition when
the UN Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm, Sweden, in 1972,
declared environmental education must be used as a tool to address global
environmental problems. The United Nations Education Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO) and United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) created three
major declarations that have guided the course of environmental education. Stockholm
Declaration June 5 16 1972-The Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the
Human Environment. The document was made up of 7 proclamations and 26 principles
to inspire and guide the peoples of the world in the preservation and enhancement of
the human environment. The Belgrade Charter October 13 22 1975-The Belgrade
Charter was the outcome of the International Workshop on Environmental Education
held in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. The Belgrade Charter was built upon the Stockholm
Declaration and adds goals, objectives, and guiding principles of environmental
education programs. It defines an audience for environmental education, which includes
the general public. The Tbilisi Declaration October 14 26 1977-The Tbilisi Declaration
noted the unanimous accord in the important role of environmental education in the
preservation and improvement of the world's environment, as well as in the sound and
balanced development of the world's communities. The Tbilisi Declaration updated and
clarified The Stockholm Declaration and The Belgrade Charter by including new goals,
objectives, characteristics, and guiding principles of environmental education. Later that
decade, in 1977, the Intergovernmental Conference on Environmental Education in
Tbilisi, Georgia emphasized the role of Environmental Education in preserving and
improving the global environment and sought to provide the framework and guidelines
for environmental education. The Conference laid out the role, objectives, and
characteristics of environmental education, and provided several goals and principles for
environmental education. Modern Environmental Education Following the 1970s, non-

governmental organizations that focused on environmental education continued to form

and grow, the number of teachers implementing environmental education in their
classrooms increased, and the movement gained stronger political backing. A critical
move forward came when Congress passed the National Environmental Education Act of
1990, which placed the Office of Environmental Education in the US Environmental
Protection Agency and allowed the EPA to create environmental education initiatives at
the federal level. Antecedents In the United States some of the antecedents of
Environmental Education were Nature Studies, Conservation Education and School
Camping. Nature studies integrated academic approach with outdoor exploration (Roth,
1978). Conservation Education brought awareness to the misuse of natural resources.
George Perkins Marsh discoursed on humanity's integral part of the natural world. The
governmental agencies like the US Forest Service and the EPA were also pushing a
conservation agenda. Conservation ideals still guide environmental education today.
School Camping was exposure to the environment and use of resources outside of the
classroom for educational purposes. The legacies of these antecedents are still present
in the evolving arena of environmental education. About Environmental education has
been considered an additional or elective subject in much of traditional K 12
curriculum. At the elementary school level, environmental education can take the form
of science enrichment curriculum, natural history field trips, community service
projects, and participation in outdoor science schools. EE policies assist schools and
organizations in developing and improving environmental education programs that
provide citizens with an in-depth understanding of the environment. School related EE
policies focus on three main components: Curricula, green facilities, and training.
Schools can integrate environmental education into their curricula with sufficient
funding from EE policies. This approach known as using the environment as an
integrating context for learning inserts environmental education into the core subjects
and thus environmental education does not take time away from other important
subjects, such as art, gym, or music. In addition to funding environmental curricula in
the classroom, environmental education policies allot the financial resources for handson, outdoor learning. These activities and lessons help address and mitigate nature
deficit disorder, as well as encourage healthier lifestyles. Green schools, or green facility
promotion, are another main component of environmental education policies. Greening
school facilities cost, on average, a little less than 2 percent more than creating a
traditional school, but payback from these energy efficient buildings occur within only a
few years. Environmental education policies help reduce the relatively small burden of
the initial start-up costs for green schools. Green school policies also provide grants for
modernization, renovation, or repair of older school facilities. Additionally, healthy food
options are also a central aspect of green schools. These policies specifically focus on
bringing freshly prepared food, made from high-quality, locally-grown ingredients into
schools. In secondary school, environmental curriculum can be a focused subject within
the sciences or is a part of student interest groups or clubs. At the undergraduate and
graduate level, it can be considered its own field within education, environmental
studies, environmental science and policy, ecology, or human/cultural ecology
programs. Environmental education is not restricted to in-class lesson plans. There are

numerous ways children can learn about the environment in which they live. From
experiential lessons in the school yard and field trips to national parks to after-school
green clubs and school wide sustainability projects, the environment is a topic which is
readily and easily accessible. Furthermore, celebration of Earth Day or participation in
EE week (run through the National Environmental Education Foundation) is a great way
to dedicate your lessons to environmental education. To be most effective, promote a
holistic approach and lead by example, using sustainable practices in the classroom and
school grounds and encouraging students and parents to bring environmental education
into their home. The final aspect of environmental education policies, but certainly not
least important, is training individuals to thrive in a sustainable society. In addition to
building a strong relationship with nature, American citizens must have the skills and
knowledge to succeed in a 21st century workforce. Thus, environmental education
policies fund both teacher training and worker training initiatives. Teachers must be
trained to effectively teach and incorporate environmental studies in their curricula. On
the other hand, the current workforce must be trained or re-trained so that they can
adapt to the new green economy. Environmental education policies that fund training
programs are critical in educating citizens to prosper in a sustainable society. Related
disciplines Environmental education has crossover with the disciplines of outdoor
education and experiential education. Both disciplines complement environmental
education yet have unique philosophies. Outdoor education means learning in and for
the outdoors. It is a means of curriculum extension and enrichment through outdoor
experiences. Environmental education is often taught or enhanced through outdoor
experiences. The out of doors experience, while not strictly environmental in nature,
often contain elements of teaching about the environment. Experiential education is a
process through which a learner constructs knowledge, skill, and value from direct
experiences Experiential education can be viewed as both a process and method to
deliver the ideas and skills associated with environmental education. While each of
these disciplines have their own objectives, there are points where both disciplines
overlap with the intentions and philosophy of environmental education. Trends One of
the current trends within environmental education seeks to move from an approach of
ideology and activism to one that allows students to make informed decisions and take
action based on experience as well as data. Within this process, environmental curricula
have progressively been integrated into governmental education standards. Some
environmental educators find this movement distressing and a move away from the
original political and activist approach to environmental education while others find this
approach more valid and accessible Movement There is a movement that has
progressed since the relatively recent founding (1960s) of the idea of environmental
education in industrial societies, which has transported the participant from nature
appreciation and awareness to education for an ecologically sustainable future. This
trend may be viewed as a microcosm of how many environmental education programs
seek to first engage with participants through developing a sense of nature appreciation
which is then translated into actions that affect conservation and sustainability.
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CBSE UGC NET-JRF: Environmental biotechnology Environmental biotechnology is when

biotechnology is applied to and used to study the natural environment. Environmental
biotechnology could also imply that one try to harness biological process for commercial
uses and exploitation. The International Society for Environmental Biotechnology
defines environmental biotechnology as the development, use and regulation of
biological systems for remediation of contaminated environments (land, air, water), and
for environment-friendly processes (green manufacturing technologies and sustainable
development) Environmental biotechnology can simply be described as the optimal
use of nature, in the form of plants, animals, bacteria, fungi and algae, to produce
renewable energy, food and nutrients in a synergistic integrated cycle of profit making
processes where the waste of each process becomes the feedstock for another process
Significance towards industrial biotechnology Consider an environment in which
pollution of a particular type is maximum. Let us consider the effluents of a starch
industry (aka Sago industry) which has mixed up with a local water body like a lake or
pond. We find huge deposits of starch which are not so easily taken up for degradation
by micro-organisms except for a few exemptions. We isolate a few micro-organisms
from the polluted site and scan for any significant changes in their genome like
mutations or evolutions. The modified genes are then identified. This is done because,
the isolate would have adapted itself to degrade/utilize the starch better than other
microbes of the same genus. Thus, the resultant genes are cloned onto industrially
significant micro-organisms and are used for more economically significant processess
like in pharmaceutical industry, fermentations Etc. Similar situations can be elucitated
like in the case of oil spills in the oceans which require cleanup, microbes isolated from
oil rich environments like oil wells, oil transfer pipelines Etc have been found having
the potential to degrade oil or use it as an energy source. Thus they serve as a remedy
to oil spills. Still another elucidation would be in the case of microbes isolated from
pesticide rich soils These would be capable of utilizing the pesticides as energy source
and hence when mixed along with bio-fertilizers, would serve as excellent insurance
against increased pesticide-toxicity levels in agricultural platform. But the counter
argument would be that whether these newly introduced microorganisms would create
an imbalance in the environment concerned. The mutual harmony in which the
organisms in that particular environment existed may have to face alteration and we
should be extremely careful so as to not disturb the mutual relationships already
existing in the environment to which we are introducing the newly discovered and
cloned microorganisms. Analysis of both the benefits and the disadvantages would pave
way for an improvised version of environmental biotechnology. After all it is the
environment
that
we
strive
to
protect.
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CBSE UGC NET-JRF: Air Pollution

Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials
that cause harm or discomfort thumans or other living organisms, or damages the
natural environment, intthe atmosphere.
The atmosphere is a complex, dynamic natural gaseous system that is essential
tsupport life on planet Earth. Stratospheric ozone depletion due tair pollution has long
been recognized as a threat thuman health as well as tthe Earth's ecosystems.
Before flue gas desulfurization was installed, the emissions from this power plant in
New Mexiccontained excessive amounts of sulfur dioxide.
An air pollutant is known as a substance in the air that can cause harm thumans and
the environment. Pollutants can be in the form of solid particles, liquid droplets, or
gases. In addition, they may be natural or man-made.
Pollutants can be classified as either primary or secondary. Usually, primary pollutants
are substances directly emitted from a process, such as ash from a volcanic eruption,
the carbon monoxide gas from a motor vehicle exhaust or sulfur dioxide released from
factories.
Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. Rather, they form in the air when primary
pollutants react or interact. An important example of a secondary pollutant is ground
level ozone. One of the many secondary pollutants that make up photochemical smog.
Note that some pollutants may be both primary and secondary: That is, they are both
emitted directly and formed from other primary pollutants.
About 4 percent of deaths in the United States can be attributed tair pollution,
according tthe Environmental Science Engineering Program at the Harvard School of
Public Health.
Major Pollutants
Major Pollutants Major primary pollutants produced by human activity include:
Sulfur oxides (SOx) -especially sulfur dioxide, a chemical compound with the formula
SO2. SO2 is produced by volcanoes and in various industrial processes. Since coal and
petroleum often contain sulfur compounds, their combustion generates sulfur dioxide.
Further oxidation of SO2, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as NO2, forms

H2SO4, and thus acid rain. This is one of the causes for concern over the environmental
impact of the use of these fuels as power sources.
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) -especially nitrogen dioxide are emitted from high temperature
combustion. Can be seen as the brown haze dome above or plume downwind of cities.
Nitrogen dioxide is the chemical compound with the formula NO2. It is one of the
several nitrogen oxides. This reddish-brown toxic gas has a characteristic sharp, biting
odor. NO2 is one of the most prominent air pollutants.
Carbon monoxide-is a colourless, odourless, non-irritating but very poisonous gas. It is
a product by incomplete combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular
exhaust is a major source of carbon monoxide.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) -a greenhouse gas emitted from combustion but is alsa gas vital
tliving organisms. It is a natural gas in the atmosphere.

Volatile organic compounds-VOCs are an important outdoor air pollutant. In this field
they are often divided intthe separate categories of methane (CH4) and non-methane
(NMVOCs). Methane is an extremely efficient greenhouse gas which contributes
tenhanced global warming. Other hydrocarbon VOCs are alssignificant greenhouse
gases via their role in creating ozone and in prolonging the life of methane in the
atmosphere, although the effect varies depending on local air quality. Within the
NMVOCs, the aromatic compounds benzene, toluene and xylene are suspected
carcinogens and may lead tleukemia through prolonged exposure. 1, 3-butadiene is
another dangerous compound which is often associated with industrial uses.
Particulate matter-Particulates, alternatively referred tas particulate matter (PM) or fine
particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas. In contrast, aerosol
refers tparticles and the gas together. Sources of particulate matter can be man made
or natural. Some particulates occur naturally, originating from volcanoes, dust storms,
forest and grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea spray. Human activities, such as
the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and various industrial processes
alsgenerate significant amounts of aerosols. Averaged over the globe, anthropogenic
aerosols those made by human activities currently account for about 10 percent of the
total amount of aerosols in our atmosphere. Increased levels of fine particles in the air
are linked thealth hazards such as heart disease, altered lung function and lung cancer.
Persistent free radicals connected tairborne fine particles could cause cardiopulmonary
disease.
Toxic metals, such as lead, cadmium and copper.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) -harmful tthe ozone layer emitted from products currently
banned from use.

Ammonia (NH3) -emitted from agricultural processes. Ammonia is a compound with the
formula NH3. It is normally encountered as a gas with a characteristic pungent odor.
Ammonia contributes significantly tthe nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by
serving as a precursor tfoodstuffs and fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly,
is alsa building block for the synthesis of many pharmaceuticals. Although in wide use,
ammonia is both caustic and hazardous.
Odors such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes
Radioactive pollutants-produced by nuclear explosions, war explosives, and natural
processes such as the radioactive decay of radon.
Secondary Pollutants
Secondary pollutants include:
Particulate matter formed from gaseous primary pollutants and compounds in
photochemical smog. Smog is a kind of air pollution; the word smog is a portmanteau
of smoke and fog. Classic smog results from large amounts of coal burning in an area
caused by a mixture of smoke and sulfur dioxide. Modern smog does not usually come
from coal but from vehicular and industrial emissions that are acted on in the
atmosphere by sunlight tform secondary pollutants that alscombine with the primary
emissions tform photochemical smog.
Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NOx and VOCs. Ozone (O3) is a key constituent
of the troposphere (it is alsan important constituent of certain regions of the
stratosphere commonly known as the Ozone layer). Photochemical and chemical
reactions involving it drive many of the chemical processes that occur in the
atmosphere by day and by night. At abnormally high concentrations brought about by
human activities (largely the combustion of fossil fuel), it is a pollutant, and a
constituent of smog.
Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) -similarly formed from NOx and VOCs.
Minor air pollutants
A large number of minor hazardous air pollutants. Some of these are regulated in USA
under the Clean Air Act and in Europe under the Air Framework Directive.
A variety of persistent organic pollutants, which can attach tparticulate matter.
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that are resistant
tenvironmental degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes.
Because of this, they have been observed tpersist in the environment, tbe capable of
long-range transport, bioaccumulate in human and animal tissue, biomagnify in food
chains, and thave potential significant impacts on human health and the environment.
Controlled burning of a field outside of Statesboro, Georgia in preparation for spring
planting

Sources of Air Pollution

Sources of air pollution refer tthe various locations, activities or factors which are
responsible for the releasing of pollutants in the atmosphere. These sources can be
classified into major categories which are:
Anthropogenic sources
These human activity mostly related tburning different kinds of fuel
Stationary Sources include smoke stacks of power plants, manufacturing facilities
(factories) and waste incinerators, as well as furnaces and other types of fuel-burning
heating devices
Mobile Sources include motor vehicles, marine vessels, aircraft and the effect of
sound etc.
Chemicals, dust and controlled burn practices in agriculture and forestry management.
Controlled or prescribed burning is a technique sometimes used in forest management,
farming, prairie restoration or greenhouse gas abatement. Fire is a natural part of both
forest and grassland ecology and controlled fire can be a tool for foresters. Controlled
burning stimulates the germination of some desirable forest trees, thus renewing the
forest.
Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish, aerosol sprays and other solvents
Waste deposition in landfills, which generate methane. Methane is not toxic; however, it
is highly flammable and may form explosive mixtures with air. Methane is alsan
asphyxiant and may displace oxygen in an enclosed space. Asphyxia or suffocation may
result if the oxygen concentration is reduced tbelow 19.5% by displacement
Military, such as nuclear weapons, toxic gases, germ warfare and rocketry
Natural sources
Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with little or nvegetation.
Methane, emitted by the digestion of food by animals, for example cattle.
Radon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth's crust. Radon is a colorless,
odorless, naturally occurring, radioactive noble gas that is formed from the decay of
radium. It is considered tbe a health hazard. Radon gas from natural sources can
accumulate in buildings, especially in confined areas such as the basement and it is the
second most frequent cause of lung cancer, after cigarette smoking.
Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires.
Volcanic activity, which produce sulfur, chlorine, and ash particulates.

Emission factors
Air pollutant emission factors are representative values that attempt trelate the
quantity of a pollutant released tthe ambient air with an activity associated with the
release of that pollutant. These factors are usually expressed as the weight of pollutant
divided by a unit weight, volume, distance, or duration of the activity emitting the
pollutant (e. g. kilograms of particulate emitted per megagram of coal burned). Such
factors facilitate estimation of emissions from various sources of air pollution. In most
cases, these factors are simply averages of all available data of acceptable quality, and
are generally assumed tbe representative of long-term averages.
The United States Environmental Protection Agency has published a compilation of air
pollutant emission factors for a multitude of industrial sources. The United Kingdom,
Australia, Canada and many other countries have published similar compilations, as well
as the European Environment Agency.
Indoor air quality (IAQ)
A lack of ventilation indoors concentrates air pollution where people often spend the
majority of their time. Radon (Rn) gas, a carcinogen, is exuded from the Earth in
certain locations and trapped inside houses. Building materials including carpeting and
plywood emit formaldehyde (H2CO) gas. Paint and solvents give off volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) as they dry. Lead paint can degenerate intdust and be inhaled.
Intentional air pollution is introduced with the use of air fresheners, incense, and other
scented items. Controlled wood fires in stoves and fireplaces can add significant
amounts of smoke particulates intthe air, inside and out. Indoor pollution fatalities may
be caused by using pesticides and other chemical sprays indoors without proper
ventilation. Carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning and fatalities are often caused by faulty
vents and chimneys, or by the burning of charcoal indoors. Chronic carbon monoxide
poisoning can result even from poorly adjusted pilot lights. Traps are built intall
domestic plumbing tkeep sewer gas, hydrogen sulfide, out of interiors. Clothing emits
tetrachloroethylene, or other dry cleaning fluids, for days after dry cleaning. Though its
use has now been banned in many countries, the extensive use of asbestos in industrial
and domestic environments in the past has left a potentially very dangerous material in
many localities. Asbestosis is a chronic inflammatory medical condition affecting the
tissue of the lungs. It occurs after long-term, heavy exposure tasbestos from asbestoscontaining materials in structures. Sufferers have severe dyspnea (shortness of breath)
and are at an increased risk regarding several different types of lung cancer. As clear
explanations are not always stressed in non-technical literature, care should be taken
tdistinguish between several forms of relevant diseases. According tthe World Health
Organisation (WHO), these may defined as; asbestosis, lung cancer, and mesothelioma
(generally a very rare form of cancer, when more widespread it is almost always
associated with prolonged exposure tasbestos). Biological sources of air pollution are
alsfound indoors, as gases and airborne particulates. Pets produce dander, people
produce dust from minute skin flakes and decomposed hair, dust mites in bedding,

carpeting and furniture produce enzymes and micrometre-sized fecal droppings,

inhabitants emit methane, mold forms in walls and generates mycotoxins and spores,
air conditioning systems can incubate Legionnaires'disease and mold, and houseplants,
soil and surrounding gardens can produce pollen, dust, and mold. Indoors, the lack of
air circulation allows these airborne pollutants taccumulate more than they would
otherwise occur in nature. Health effects The World Health Organization states that 2.4
million people die each year from causes directly attributable tair pollution, with 1.5
million of these deaths attributable tindoor air pollution. Epidemiological studies
suggest that more than 500, 000 Americans die each year from cardiopulmonary
disease linked tbreathing fine particle air pollution A study by the University of
Birmingham has shown a strong correlation between pneumonia related deaths and air
pollution from motor vehicles. Worldwide more deaths per year are linked tair pollution
than tautomobile accidents. Published in 2005 suggests that 310, 000 Europeans die
from air pollution annually. Direct causes of air pollution related deaths include
aggravated asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, lung and heart diseases, and respiratory
allergies. The US EPA estimates that a proposed set of changes in diesel engine
technology (Tier 2) could result in 12, 000 fewer premature mortalities, 15, 000 fewer
heart attacks, 6, 000 fewer emergency room visits by children with asthma, and 8, 900
fewer respiratory-related hospital admissions each year in the United States. The worst
short term civilian pollution crisis in India was the 1984 Bhopal Disaster. Leaked
industrial vapors from the Union Carbide factory, belonging tUnion Carbide, Inc. USA.
killed more than 2, 000 people outright and injured anywhere from 150, 000 t600, 000
others, some 6, 000 of whom would later die from their injuries. The United Kingdom
suffered its worst air pollution event when the December 4 Great Smog of 1952 formed
over London. In six days more than 4, 000 died, and 8, 000 more died within the
following months. An accidental leak of anthrax spores from a biological warfare
laboratory in the former USSR in 1979 near Sverdlovsk is believed thave been the
cause of hundreds of civilian deaths. The worst single incident of air pollution toccur in
the United States of America occurred in Donora, Pennsylvania in late October, 1948,
when 20 people died and over 7, 000 were injured. The health effects caused by air
pollutants may range from subtle biochemical and physiological changes tdifficulty in
breathing, wheezing, coughing and aggravation of existing respiratory and cardiac
conditions. These effects can result in increased medication use, increased doctor or
emergency room visits, more hospital admissions and premature death. The human
health effects of poor air quality are far reaching, but principally affect the body's
respiratory system and the cardiovascular system. Individual reactions tair pollutants
depend on the type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, the
individual's health status and genetics. A new economic study of the health impacts and
associated costs of air pollution in the Los Angeles Basin and San Joaquin Valley of
Southern California shows that more than 3800 people die prematurely (approximately
14 years earlier than normal) each year because air pollution levels violate federal
standards. The number of annual premature deaths is considerably higher than the
fatalities related tautcollisions in the same area, which average fewer than 2, 000 per
year. Diesel exhaust (DE) is a major contributor tcombustion derived particulate matter

air pollution. In several human experimental studies, using a well validated exposure
chamber setup, DE has been linked tacute vascular dysfunction and increased thrombus
formation. This serves as a plausible mechanistic link between the previously described
association between particulate matter air pollution and increased cardiovascular
morbidity and mortality. Effects on cystic fibrosis A study from 1999 t2000 by the
University of Washington showed that patients near and around particulate matter air
pollution had an increased risk of pulmonary exacerbations and decrease in lung
function. Patients were examined before the study for amounts of specific pollutants
like Pseudomonas aeruginosa or Burkholderia cenocepacia as well as their
socioeconomic standing. Participants involved in the study were located in the United
States in close proximity tan Environmental Protection Agency. [clarification needed]
During the time of the study 117 deaths were associated with air pollution. A trend was
noticed that patients living closer or in large metropolitan areas tbe close tmedical help
alshad higher level of pollutants found in their system because of more emissions in
larger cities. With cystic fibrosis patients already being born with decreased lung
function everyday pollutants such as smoke emissions from automobiles, tobaccsmoke
and improper use of indoor heating devices could add tthe disintegration of lung
function. Effects on COPD Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) include
diseases such as chronic bronchitis, emphysema, and some forms of asthma. A study
conducted in 1960 1961 in the wake of the Great Smog of 1952 compared 293
London residents with 477 residents of Gloucester, Peterborough, and Norwich, three
towns with low reported death rates from chronic bronchitis. All subjects were male
postal truck drivers aged 40 t59. Compared tthe subjects from the outlying towns, the
London subjects exhibited more severe respiratory symptoms (including cough,
phlegm, and dyspnea), reduced lung function (FEV1 and peak flow rate), and increased
sputum production and purulence. The differences were more pronounced for subjects
aged 50 t59. The study controlled for age and smoking habits, sconcluded that air
pollution was the most likely cause of the observed differences. It is believed that much
like cystic fibrosis, by living in a more urban environment serious health hazards
become more apparent. Studies have shown that in urban areas patients suffer mucus
hypersecretion, lower levels of lung function, and more self diagnosis of chronic
bronchitis and emphysema. [23] The Great Smog of 1952 in London Early in December
1952, a cold fog descended upon London. Because of the cold, Londoners began tburn
more coal than usual. The resulting air pollution was trapped by the inversion layer
formed by the dense mass of cold air. Concentrations of pollutants, coal smoke in
particular, built up dramatically. The problem was made worse by use of low-quality,
high-sulphur coal for home heating in London in order tpermit export of higher-quality
coal, because of the country's tenuous postwar economic situation. The fog or smog,
was sthick that driving became difficult or impossible. The extreme reduction in visibility
was accompanied by an increase in criminal activity as well as transportation delays
and a virtual shut down of the city. During the 4 day period of fog, at least 4, 000
people died as a direct result of the weather. Effects on children Cities around the world
with high exposure tair pollutants have the possibility of children living within them
tdevelop asthma, pneumonia and other lower respiratory infections as well as a low

initial birth rate. Protective measures tensure the youths'health are being taken in cities
such as New Delhi, India where buses now use compressed natural gas thelp eliminate
the pea-soup smog. Research by the World Health Organization shows there is the
greatest concentration of particulate matter particles in countries with low economic
world power and high poverty and population rates. Examples of these countries include
Egypt, Sudan, Mongolia, and Indonesia. The Clean Air Act was passed in 1970, however
in 2002 at least 146 million Americans were living in areas that did not meet at least
one of the criteria pollutants laid out in the 1997 National Ambient Air Quality
Standards. Those pollutants included: Ozone, particulate matter, sulfur dioxide,
nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and lead. Because children are outdoors more and
have higher minute ventilation they are more susceptible tthe dangers of air pollution.
Health effects in relatively clean areas Even in areas with relatively low levels of air
pollution, public health effects can be substantial and costly. This is because effects can
occur at very low levels and a large number of people can potentially breathe in such
pollutants. A 2005 scientific study for the British Columbia Lung Association showed
that a 1% improvement in ambient PM2.5 and ozone concentrations will produce a $29
million in annual savings in the region in 2010. This finding is based on health valuation
of lethal (mortality) and sub-lethal (morbidity) effects. Reduction efforts There are
various air pollution control technologies and land use planning strategies available
treduce air pollution. At its most basic level land use planning is likely tinvolve zoning
and transport infrastructure planning. In most developed countries, land use planning is
an important part of social policy, ensuring that land is used efficiently for the benefit of
the wider economy and population as well as tprotect the environment. Efforts treduce
pollution from mobile sources includes primary regulation (many developing countries
have permissive regulations), expanding regulation tnew sources (such as cruise and
transport ships, farm equipment, and small gas-powered equipment such as lawn
trimmers, chainsaws, and snowmobiles), increased fuel efficiency (such as through the
use of hybrid vehicles), conversion tcleaner fuels (such as bioethanol, biodiesel, or
conversion telectric vehicles). Control devices The following items are commonly used
as pollution control devices by industry or transportation devices. They can either
destroy contaminants or remove them from an exhaust stream before it is emitted
intthe atmosphere. Particulate control Mechanical collectors (dust cyclones,
multicyclones), Electrostatic precipitators An electrostatic precipitator (ESP), or
electrostatic air cleaner is a particulate collection device that removes particles from a
flowing gas (such as air) using the force of an induced electrostatic charge. Electrostatic
precipitators are highly efficient filtration devices that minimally impede the flow of
gases through the device, and can easily remove fine particulate matter such as dust
and smoke from the air stream. Baghouses Designed thandle heavy dust loads, a dust
collector consists of a blower, dust filter, a filter-cleaning system, and a dust receptacle
or dust removal system (distinguished from air cleaners which utilize disposable filters
tremove the dust). Particulate scrubbers Wet scrubber is a form of pollution control
technology. The term describes a variety of devices that use pollutants from a furnace
flue gas or from other gas streams. In a wet scrubber, the polluted gas stream is
brought intcontact with the scrubbing liquid, by spraying it with the liquid, by forcing it

through a pool of liquid, or by some other contact method, to remove the pollutants.
Dioxin and furan control Scrubbers Types of Scrubbers Baffle spray scrubber Cyclonic
spray scrubber Ejector venturi scrubber Mechanically aided scrubber Spray tower Wet
scrubber NOx control Low NOx burners Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) Selective
non-catalytic reduction (SNCR) NOx scrubbers Exhaust gas recirculation Catalytic
converter (alsfor VOC control) VOC abatement Adsorption systems, such as activated
carbon Flares Thermal oxidizers Catalytic oxidizers Biofilters Absorption (scrubbing)
Cryogenic condensers Vapor recovery systems Acid Gas/SO2 control Wet scrubbers Dry
scrubbers Flue gas desulfurization Mercury control Sorbent Injection Technology
Electro-Catalytic Oxidation (ECO) K-Fuel Miscellaneous associated equipment Source
capturing systems Continuous emissions monitoring systems (CEMS) Legal regulations
The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the
subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page. Smog in
Cairo In general, there are twtypes of air quality standards. The first class of standards
(such as the US National Ambient Air Quality Standards) set maximum atmospheric
concentrations for specific pollutants. Environmental agencies enact regulations which
are intended tresult in attainment of these target levels. The second class (such as the
North American Air Quality Index) take the form of a scale with various thresholds,
which is used tcommunicate tthe public the relative risk of outdoor activity. The scale
may or may not distinguish between different pollutants. Canada In Canada, air quality
is typically evaluated against standards set by the Canadian Council of Ministers of the
Environment (CCME), an inter-governmental body of federal, provincial and territorial
Ministers responsible for the environment. The CCME has set Canada Wide Standards
(CWS). These are: Note that there is nconsequence in Canada tnot achieving these
standards. In addition, these only apply tjurisdictions with populations greater than
100, 000. Further, provinces and territories may set more stringent standards than
those set by the CCME. CWS for PM2.5 = 30 g/m3 (24 hour averaging time, by year
2010, based on 98th percentile ambient measurement annually, averaged over 3
consecutive years). CWS for ozone = 65 ppb (8-hour averaging time, by year 2010,
achievement is based on the 4th highest measurement annually, averaged over 3
consecutive years). European Union A report from the European Environment Agency
shows that road transport remains Europe's single largest air polluter. National Emission
Ceilings (NEC) for certain atmospheric pollutants are regulated by NECD Directive
2001/81/EC (NECD). As part of the preparatory work associated with the revision of the
NECD, the European Commission is assisted by the NECPI working group (National
Emission Ceilings Policy Instruments). Directive 2008/50/EC of the European Parliament
and of the Council of 21 May 2008 on ambient air quality and cleaner air for Europe
(the new Air Quality Directive) has entried intforce 2008 06 11. Individual citizens
can force their local councils ttackle air pollution, following an important ruling in July
2009 from the European Court of Justice (ECJ). The EU's court was asked tjudge the
case of a resident of Munich, Dieter Janecek, whsaid that under the 1996 EU
Air Quality Directive (Council Directive 96/62/EC of 27 September 1996 on ambient air
quality assessment and management) the Munich authorities were obliged ttake action

tstop pollution exceeding specified targets. Janecek then took his case tthe ECJ, whose
judges said European citizens are entitled tdemand air quality action plans from local
authorities in situations where there is a risk that EU limits will be overshot. United
Kingdom Air quality targets set by the UK's Department for Environment, Food and
Rural Affairs (DEFRA) are mostly aimed at local government representatives responsible
for the management of air quality in cities, where air quality management is the most
urgent. The UK has established an air quality network where levels of the key air
pollutants are published by monitoring centers. Air quality in Oxford, Bath and London
is particularly poor. One controversial study performed by the Calor Gas company and
published in the Guardian newspaper compared walking in Oxford on an average day
tsmoking over sixty light cigarettes.
More precise comparisons can be collected from the UK Air Quality Archive which allows
the user tcompare a cities management of pollutants against the national air quality
objectives set by DEFRA in 2000.
DEFRA acknowledges that air pollution has a significant effect on health and has
produced a simple banding index system is used tcreate a daily warning system that is
issued by the BBC Weather Service tindicate air pollution levels. DEFRA has published
guidelines for people suffering from respiratory and heart diseases.
Localized peak values are often cited, but average values are alsimportant thuman
health. The UK National Air Quality Information Archive offers almost real-time
monitoring of current maximum air pollution measurements for many UK towns and
cities. This source offers a wide range of constantly updated data, including:
Hourly Mean Ozone (g/m3)
Hourly Mean Nitrogen dioxide (g/m3)
Maximum 15-Minute Mean Sulphur dioxide (g/m3)
8-Hour Mean Carbon monoxide (mg/m3)
24-Hour Mean PM10 (g/m3 Grav Equiv)
United States
In the 1960s, 70s, and 90s, the United States Congress enacted a series of Clean Air
Acts which significantly strengthened regulation of air pollution. Individual US states,
some European nations and eventually the European Union followed these initiatives.
The Clean Air Act sets numerical limits on the concentrations of a basic group of air
pollutants and provide reporting and enforcement mechanisms.
In an October 2006 letter to EPA, the agency's independent scientific advisors warned
that the ozone smog standard needs tbe substantially reduced and that there is
nscientific justification for retaining the current, weaker standard. The scientists

unanimously recommended a smog threshold of 60 t70 ppb after they conducted an

extensive review of the evidence.
The EPA has proposed, in June 2007, a new threshold of 75 ppb. This is less strict than
the scientific recommendation, but is more strict than the current standard.
Some industries are lobbying tkeep the current standards in place. Environmentalists
and public health advocates are mobilizing tsupport the scientific recommendations.
The National Ambient Air Quality Standards are pollution thresholds which trigger
mandatory remediation plans by state and local governments, subject tenforcement by
the EPA.
An outpouring of dust layered with man-made sulfates, smog, industrial fumes, carbon
grit, and nitrates is crossing the Pacific Ocean on prevailing winds from booming Asian
economies in plumes svast they alter the climate. Almost a third of the air over Los
Angeles and San Francisccan be traced directly tAsia. With it comes up tthree-quarters
of the black carbon particulate pollution that reaches the West Coast.
Libertarians typically suggest proletarian methods of stopping pollution. They advocate
strict liability which would hold accountable anyone whcauses polluted air temanate
intsomeone else's airspace. This offense would be considered aggression, and damages
could be sought in court under the common law, possibly through class action suits.
Since in a libertarian society, highways would be privatized under a system of free
market roads, the highway owners would alsbe held liable for pollution emanating from
vehicles traveling along their property. This would give them a financial incentive tkeep
the worst polluters off of their roads. In 1999, the United States EPA replaced the
Pollution Standards Index (PSI) with the Air Quality Index (AQI) tincorporate new
PM2.5 and Ozone standards.
The effects of these laws have been very positive. In the United States between 1970
and 2006, citizens enjoyed the following reductions in annual pollution emissions:
carbon monoxide emissions fell from 197 million tons t89 million tons
nitrogen oxide emissions fell from 27 million tons t19 million tons
sulfur dioxide emissions fell from 31 million tons t15 million tons
particulate emissions fell by 80%
lead emissions fell by more than 98%