Using paper folding,

fraction walls,
and number lines
to develop understanding of fractions
for students from Years 58
Catherine Ann Pearn
University of Melbourne
<cpearn@unimelb.edu.au>

Abstract

everal researchers have noted how childrens whole number schemes

can interfere with their efforts to learn fractions. An Australian study
found that children who were successful with the solution of rational
number tasks exhibited greater whole number knowledge and more flexible
solution strategies. Behr and Post (1988) indicated that children needed to
be competent in the four operations of whole numbers, along with an
understanding of measurement, for them to understand rational numbers.
This paper describes a hands on approach developed by researchers that
focuses on the use of paper folding, fraction walls and number lines to
develop an understanding of fractions using a measurement model.

Introduction
Over the past 20 years, research on rational number learning has focused
on the development of basic fraction concepts, including partitioning of a
whole into fractional parts, naming of fractional parts, and order and equivalence. Kieren (1976) distinguished seven interpretations of rational
number which were necessary to enable the learner to acquire sound
rational number knowledge, but subsequently condensed these into five:
wholepart relations, ratios, quotients, measures, and operators (Kieren,
1980; 1988). Kieren suggested that children have to develop the appropriate
images, actions and language to precede the formal work with fractions.
Saenz-Ludlow (1994) maintained that students needed to conceptualise
fractions as quantities before being introduced to standard fractional
symbolic computational algorithms. Streefland (1984) discussed the importance of students developing their own understanding of fractions by
constructing the procedures of the operations, rules and language of fractions.
Behr and Post (1988) suggested that children needed to be competent in
the four operations of whole numbers, along with an understanding of
measurement, for them to understand rational numbers. They suggested
that rational numbers are the first set of numbers experienced by children
that are not dependent on a counting algorithm. Steffe and Olive (1990,
1993) showed that concepts and operations represented by childrens
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natural language are used in their construction of fraction knowledge.

An Australian research project (Hunting, Davis & Pearn, 1996) was
designed to investigate the extent to which childrens thinking processes might
be associated with qualitative differences in their whole number knowledge
when solving rational number tasks. This research revealed the vast difference
in the childrens mathematical knowledge and the type of whole number
strategies they used. Children who used a variety of strategies to solve whole
number tasks were more successful, and used superior strategies, when
solving rational number tasks. Children, who relied on rules and procedures
to solve whole number tasks, were less successful with rational number tasks.
They experienced some success with partitioning and ratio tasks but little or
no success with fraction tasks set in various contexts. This study raises several
questions about conventional approaches to teaching fractions. Most children
studied had difficulty understanding the language of fractions. While most
students were successful with tasks involving one half, very few understood,
or were successful, with tasks involving other unit fractions.
As there appears to be an interdependence between the development of
rational number knowledge and whole number knowledge, fraction tasks
need to be given that allow children to develop numerical relationships and
strategies flexible enough to be used in various contexts. Success with the
ratio tasks indicated that problems and tasks developed in the context of
sharing discrete items would be a good starting point for the teaching of
fractions in the early years of schooling with emphasis on the introduction
of appropriate language. This emphasis on the appropriate language needs
to be continued into the middle years of schooling (Years 58).
This paper focuses on the measurement model which is designed to
assist teachers to identify the mathematical understanding of the students
they teach and to develop activities to help all students to progress at their
relative level of understanding (see for example, Pearn, Stephens & Lewis,
2003; Stephens & Pearn, 2003; Pearn & Stephens, 2007). This approach to
teaching fractions for understanding is being used in many Victorian
primary and secondary schools: state, catholic, and independent.

Introduction to fractions
Students are given various lengths of paper strips or pieces of paper
streamers. Ask the students to fold their paper strips into halves and ask a
question such as: How do you know you have folded your strip into
halves? Ask students to compare their half strips with those of other
students. Students are then shown other students attempts to show one
half of a rectangle (Figure 1).
Ask questions such as:
Which of these students have successfully shaded their rectangles to shows
one half? (Some students will not recognise that Mikes rectangle is showing one
half as they think the left hand side is
one half and the right hand side is two
halves.)
Why is Jacksons half different to Mikes
half?
Figure 1. Students attempts at shading
Why do you think Jen has shaded her
one half of a rectangle.
rectangle how she has?
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Comparison of half of a square

Students are handed two squares of paper and asked to fold each square in
half. Once students have folded one square in half, ask them to fold the
other in a different way.

Figure 2

Questions to ask students include:

Which half is larger: the triangle or the rectangle or are they both the
same?
How do you know?
Prove it. (Show me.)
Students enjoy proving that the triangular half is the same size as the
rectangular half.

Representations of a fraction other than one half

Write the fraction one third ( 13 ) on the board and ask students to draw a
picture or a diagram to show what this symbol means. Previous experience
has shown that most students will draw a circle divided into three parts not
necessarily equal.

Figure 3

Take particular notice of which of the three pieces students colour. Is it

always the left hand piece or is it the right hand piece? Ask students how
they decided which piece to colour.
Students are then asked to draw a different representation of one third.
We would expect students to draw a variety of 2D shapes such as squares,
triangles, as well as groups of objects. Do they attempt to make equal divisions?
If students colour one of three objects to represent one third do they
colour the third object in the row? If so, ask if they can show you a different
one third of the group.

Figure 4

If students colour one of three objects ask them to show you one third of
six objects, 12 objects and ask how they decided on how many to colour.
Some students try to replicate the format of the fraction one third ( 13 )
and colour one of four objects as shown in Figure 5.
amt 63 (4) 2007

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Figure 5

If students draw nine objects and colour three, ask them to show you one
third of three or six objects. They may think that one third will always be
three regardless of the number of objects they started with.

The measurement model

Working with teachers and students has highlighted the relevance of the
measurement model where students fold paper strips into fractional parts
then use these strips to mark fraction walls and number lines. Fraction
walls highlight equivalent fractions and allow students to compare and
order fractions between zero and one. Number lines allow students to experience the density of the number system.

Folding paper strips

Students are given a paper strip that is 20 cm long and asked to fold it into
two equal pieces. Discussion includes questions such as:
How many parts are there?
How many folds are there?
What do we call each part?
Show me one half of the paper strip. Show me a different half.
How many halves are there in a whole?
Students are then asked to fold their halves of paper strip in half. Before
opening their paper they are asked:
How many parts will there be?
How many folds will there be?
What do we call each part?
Show me one quarter of the paper strip. Show me a different quarter.
Show me two quarters. What is another name for two quarters?
Which is larger: one half or one quarter? How do you know?
Students are then asked to use their paper folding to show: three quarters, four quarters, one half and one whole. After folding their paper
streamer in eighths students will be asked questions that involve equivalence, showing fractions that are larger and smaller than given fractions,
and questions such as: Show me a fraction that is larger than one eighth
but smaller than one half?
If using paper folding for the first time then just fold halves, quarters and
eighths. If students have used paper folding before another paper strip will
be folded into thirds, sixths, ninths and similar questions asked as for the
halves, quarters and eighths. Strips can then be folded into fifths and
tenths. Students should be challenged to fold a paper strip into sevenths.

Fraction wall
A fraction wall can be constructed using the Insert Table command from
Word. The table is formatted so that it is 20 cm wide and contains ten rows
(see Figure 6). Using their folded paper strips students are asked to complete
the fraction wall to show a whole, halves, thirds, quarters tenths.
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amt 63 (4) 2007

Ask students to mark each of the parts

with the appropriate unit fraction. See
Figure 7 for the correct way to mark the
Fraction Wall as compared to Figure 8 that
shows one way (incorrect) found in some
textbooks.
Ask students to show you several representations that will demonstrate three
fifths. Students need to realise that any
three pieces marked 15 will be 35 and that the
three pieces do not necessarily need to be
Figure 6. Blank fraction wall.
adjacent.
Students should be asked similar questions about the fraction walls as those asked
for the folded paper strips; that is, questions
related to equivalence and fractions that are
Figure 7. Correct marking of the
smaller and larger than given fractions.
fraction wall with fifths.
For example, ask students to find fractions that are equivalent to:
one third;
two fifths.
Ask students to find fractions that are
Figure 8. Incorrect marking of the
smaller than:
fraction wall for fifths.
one half;
three fifths.
After constructing their fraction walls using their folded paper strips
students can use Microsoft Word to construct their own fraction walls using
the Split Cells instruction. Ensure that students are able to refer to the fraction walls when working with fractions.
Many teachers like to use pizzas, pies or circles for fractions. Many worksheets in textbooks focus on students shading circles. Usually the divisions
have been marked on these circles and students are asked to shade the
required number of pieces. To highlight the difficulty of using pizzas, pies,
or circles ask students to divide circles without the use of compass or
protractor. Another dilemma in the use of pizzas is that students know that
pizzas already come cut into pieces not necessarily equal!

Fractions as numbers
Given a number line marked 0 to 1, students are asked to estimate and
mark given fractions. For example: Mark your number line where you think
the number one third would be. After marking their line, students check
using their folded paper strips. Repeat this procedure with other fractions.
After using the number line marked 0 to 1, give students number lines
marked 0 and 2; 1 and 2; 2 and 3; 0 and 12 . Students need to justify why
they have placed their fractions where they have.

The language of fractions

All sessions should emphasise the language of fractions. To reinforce the
language of fractions, ask students to write in words (everyday English)
some expressions such as:
1
1
2 2 (one half of a half: a quarter)
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1
3
1
3
1
6

16 (the difference between one third and one sixth: one sixth)
16 (How many sixths are there in one third? two)
2 (share one sixth between two: one twelfth)
Students also need to move between the words and the symbols. For
example, ask students to write the symbols for:
one third and one quarter
the difference between one half and one third
one half of 12
How many quarters in one half?
How many sixths in one third?
How many thirds in two wholes?

Conclusion
This model uses the folding of paper strips to complete the fraction wall and
then mark the appropriate places for fractions on number lines. These
activities assist students to develop the understanding of fractions rather
than rely on rules and procedures without understanding. This hands-on
approach highlights the need to develop fractional language and the ability
to move between everyday language and fractional symbols.

References
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Post (Ed.), Teaching Mathematics in Grades K8. Massachusetts: Allyn and Bacon.
Hunting, R. P., Davis, G. & Pearn, C. (1996). Engaging whole number knowledge for rational
number learning using a computer based tool. Journal for Research in Mathematics
Education. 27(3), 354379.
Kieren, T. E. (1976). On the mathematical, cognitive and instructional foundations of rational
numbers. In R. A. Lesh (Ed.), Number and Measurement: Papers from a Research
Workshop (pp. 101144). Columbus: ERIC/SMEAC.
Kieren, T. E. (1980). The rational number construct Its elements and mechanisms. In T.
E. Kieren (Ed.), Recent Research on Number Learning (pp. 125150). Columbus:
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Kieren, T. E. (1983). Partitioning, equivalence, and the construction of rational number
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Saenz-Ludlow, A. (1994). Michaels fraction schemes. Journal for Research in Mathematics
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