Handbook of

Formulae and
Physical Constants
For The Use Of Students And Examination Candidates

PROFESSOR JEE COLLEGIATE

AN INSTITUTE OF EDUCATIONAL EXCELLENCE

03132445040

www.powerengineering.ca

Printed J uly 2003

Table of Contents
TOPIC

PAGE

SI Multiples..........................................................................................1
Basic Units (distance, area, volume, mass, density) ............................2
Mathematical Formulae .......................................................................5
Applied Mechanics .............................................................................10
Thermodynamics.................................................................................21
Fluid Mechanics..................................................................................28
Electricity............................................................................................30
Periodic Table .....................................................................................34

Names in the Metric System

VALUE
1 000 000 000 000
1 000 000 000
1 000 000
1 000
100
10
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.000 001
0.000 000 001
0.000 000 000 001

EXPONENT

SYMBOL

1012
109
106
103
102
101
10-1
10-2
10-3
10-6
10-9
10-12

T
G
M
k
h
da
d
c
m

n
p

PREFIX
tera
giga
mega
kilo
hecto
deca
deci
centi
milli
micro
nano
pico

To Convert

Conversion Chart for Metric Units

To
Milli-

To
Centi-

To
Deci-

To
Metre,
Gram,
Litre

To
Deca-

To
Hecto-

Kilo-

x 106

x 105

x 104

x 103

x 102

x 101

Hecto-

x 105

x 104

x 103

x 102

x 101

Deca-

x 104

x 103

x 102

x 101

Metre,
Gram,
Litre

x 103

x 102

x 101

Deci-

x 102

x 101

Centi-

x 101

Milli-

x 10-1

To
Kilo-

x 10-1

x 10-1

x 10-2

x 10-1

x 10-2

x 10-3

x 10-1

x 10-2

x 10-3

x 10-4

x 10-1

x 10-2

x 10-3

x 10-4

x 10-5

x 10-2

x 10-3

x 10-4

x 10-5

x 10-6

Page 1

BASIC UNITS
SI

IMPERIAL

DISTANCE
1 metre (1 m) = 10 decimetres (10 dm)
= 100 centimetres (100 cm)
= 1000 millimetres (1000 mm)

12 in.
3 ft
5280 ft
1760 yd

=
=
=
=

1 ft
1 yd
1 mile
1 mile

1 decametre (1 dam) = 10 m
1 hectometre (1 hm) = 100 m
1 kilometre (1 km) = 1000 m
Conversions:
1 in.
1 ft
1 mile
1 yd
1m

=
=
=
=
=

25.4 mm
30.48 cm
1.61 km
0.914 m
3.28 ft

Area
1 sq metre (1 m2) = 10 000 cm2
= 1 000 000 mm2
1 sq hectometre (1 hm2) = 10 000 m2
= 1 hectare (1 ha)

1 ft2 = 144 in.2

1 yd2 = 9 ft2
1 sq mile = 640 acre = 1 section

1 sq km (1 km2) = 1 000 000 m2

Conversions:
1 in.2
1 m2
1 acre
1 sq mile

=
=
=
=

6.45 cm2 = 645 mm2

10.8 ft2
0.405 ha
2.59 km2

Page 2

SI

IMPERIAL

Volume
1 m3 = 1 000 000 cm3
= 1 x 109 mm3
1 dm3
1 litre
1 mL
1 m3

=
=
=
=

1 ft3 = 1728 in.3

1 yd3 = 27 ft3

1 litre
1000 cm3
1 cm3
1000 litres

1(liquid) U.S. gallon =

=
1 U.S. barrel (bbl) =
1 imperial gallon =

231 in.3
4 (liquid) quarts
42 U.S. gal.
1.2 U.S. gal.

Conversions:
1 in.3
1 m3
1 litre
1 U.S.gal
1 U.S. bbl
1 litre/s

=
=
=
=
=
=

16.4 cm3
35.3 ft3
61 in.3
3.78 litres
159 litres
15.9 U.S. gal/min

Mass and Weight

1 kilogram (1 kg) = 1000 grams
1000 kg = 1 tonne

2000 lb = 1 ton (short)

1 long ton = 2240 lb

Conversions:
1 kg (on Earth) results in a weight of 2.2 lb
Density

mass density =

mass
volume

weight density =

m kg

V m3

weight
volume

w lb

V ft 3

Conversions:
(on Earth) a mass density of 1

kg
results in a weight density of 0.0623 lb3
m3
ft

Page 3

SI

Imperial

RELATIVE DENSITY
In SI R.D. is a comparison of mass density
to a standard. For solids and liquids the
standard is fresh water.
water.

In Imperial the corresponding quantity is

specific gravity; for solids and liquids a
comparison of weight density to that of

Conversions:

In both systems the same numbers

hold for R.D. as for S.G. since
these are equivalent ratios.
RELATIVE DENSITY (SPECIFIC GRAVITY) OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES

Water (fresh)............... 1.00

Water (sea average) .... 1.03
Aluminum................... 2.56
Antimony .................... 6.70
Bismuth....................... 9.80
Brass ........................... 8.40
Brick ........................... 2.1
Calcium....................... 1.58
Carbon (diamond)....... 3.4
Carbon (graphite)........ 2.3
Carbon (charcoal) ....... 1.8
Chromium................... 6.5
Clay............................. 1.9
Coal............................. 1.36-1.4
Cobalt ......................... 8.6
Copper ........................ 8.77
Cork ............................ 0.24
Glass (crown).............. 2.5
Glass (flint)................. 3.5
Gold .......................... 19.3
Iron (cast).................... 7.21
Iron (wrought) ............ 7.78
Lead .......................... 11.4
Magnesium ................. 1.74
Manganese.................. 8.0
Mercury .................... 13.6

Mica............................ 2.9
Nickel ......................... 8.6
Oil (linseed) ................ 0.94
Oil (olive) ................... 0.92
Oil (petroleum) ........... 0.76-0.86
Oil (turpentine) ........... 0.87
Paraffin ....................... 0.86
Platinum.................... 21.5
Sand (dry) ................... 1.42
Silicon......................... 2.6
Silver......................... 10.57
Slate ............................ 2.1-2.8
Sodium........................ 0.97
Steel (mild) ................. 7.87
Sulphur ....................... 2.07
Tin............................... 7.3
Tungsten ................... 19.1
Wood (ash) ................. 0.75
Wood (beech) ............. 0.7-0.8
Wood (ebony)............. 1.1-1.2
Wood (elm)................. 0.66
Wood (lignum-vitae) .. 1.3
Wood (oak)................. 0.7-1.0
Wood (pine)................ 0.56
Wood (teak) ................ 0.8
Zinc............................. 7.0

Page 4

Greek Alphabet

Alpha
Beta
Gamma
Delta
Epsilon
Zeta
Eta
Theta

Iota
Kappa
Lambda
Mu
Nu
Xi
Omicron
Pi

Rho
Sigma
Tau
Upsilon
Phi
Kai
Psi
Omega

MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE
Algebra
1. Expansion Formulae

(x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2
(x - y)2 = x2 - 2xy + y2
x2 - y2 = (x - y) (x + y)
(x + y)3 = x3 + 3x2y + 3xy2 + y3
x3 + y3 = (x + y) (x2 - xy + y2)
(x - y)3 = x3 - 3x2y + 3xy2 - y3
x3 - y3 = (x - y) (x2 + xy + y2)
2. Quadratic Equation

If ax2 + bx + c = 0,
Then

x =

- b b 2 4ac
2a

Page 5

Trigonometry
1. Basic Ratios

Sin A =

y
,
h

cos A =

x
,
h

tan A =

y
x

2. Pythagoras' Law

x2 + y2 = h2
3. Trigonometric Function Values

Sin is positive from 0 to 90 and positive from 90 to 180

Cos is positive from 0 to 90 and negative from 90 to 180
Tan is positive from 0 to 90 and negative from 90 to 180
4. Solution of Triangles
a. Sine Law

a
b
c
=
=
Sin A Sin B Sin C
b. Cosine Law

c2

= a2 + b2 - 2 ab Cos C

a2

= b2 + c2 - 2 bc Cos A

b2

= a2 + c2 - 2 ac Cos B

Page 6

Geometry
1. Areas of Triangles
a. All Triangles

Area =

base x perpendicular height

2

Area =

bc Sin A ab Sin C ac Sin B

=
=
2
2
2

and,
Area =

s (s - a) (s - b) (s - c)

where, s is half the sum of the sides, or s =

a+b+c
2

b. Equilateral Triangles

Area = 0.433 x side2

2. Circumference of a Circle

C = d
3. Area of a Circle

A = r2 =

circumference x r
= d 2 = 0.7854d2
4
2

4. Area of a Sector of a Circle

A=

arc x r
2

A=

x r2
360

A=

r 2
2

( = angle in degrees)

( = angle in radians)

Page 7

5. Area of a Segment of a Circle

A = area of sector area of triangle

Also approximate area =

4 2
h
3

d
- 0.608
h

6. Ellipse

A=

Dd
4

Approx. circumference =

(D + d )
2

7. Area of Trapezoid
a + b
A=
h
2
8. Area of Hexagon

A = 2.6s2 where s is the length of one side

9. Area of Octagon

A = 4.83s2 where s is the length of one side

10. Sphere

Total surface area A =4r2

Surface area of segment As = dh
Volume V =

4 3
r
3

Volume of segment
2
Vs = h (3r h)
3
h
(h 2 + 3a 2) where a = radius of segment base
Vs =
6

Page 8

11. Volume of a Cylinder

2
d L where L is cylinder length
4

V=

12. Pyramid

Volume
1
base area x perpendicular height
3

V=

Volume of frustum
h
(A + a + Aa ) where h is the perpendicular height, A and a are areas as shown
3

VF =
13. Cone

Area of curved surface of cone:

DL
2

A=

Area of curved surface of frustum

AF =

(D + d)L
2

Volume of cone:
V=

base area perpendicular height

3

Volume of frustum:
VF =

perpendicular height (R 2 + r 2 + Rr)

3

Page 9

APPLIED MECHANICS
Scalar

- a property described by a magnitude only

Vector

- a property described by a magnitude and a direction

Velocity - vector property equal to

displacement
time

The magnitude of velocity may be referred to as speed

ft
In SI the basic unit is m
s , in Imperial s

Other common units are km , mi

h h
Conversions:

m
ft
= 3.28
s
s

km
mi
= 0.621
h
h

m
Speed of sound in dry air is 331 m
s at 0C and increases by about 0.61 s for each C
rise

Speed of light in vacuum equals 3 x 108 m

s
Acceleration - vector property equal to

In SI the basic unit is

Conversion:

change in velocity
time

m
ft
, in Imperial 2
2
s
s

m
s2

= 3.28

ft
s2

Acceleration due to gravity, symbol "g", is 9.81

m
ft
or 32.2 2
2
s
s

Page 10

LINEAR VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

u
v
t
s
a

v = u + at
s= v+u t
2
s = ut + 1 at 2
2
v 2 = u 2 + 2 as

initial velocity
final velocity
elapsed time
displacement
acceleration

Angular Velocity and Acceleration

angular displacement (radians)
angular velocity (radians/s); 1 = initial, 2 = final
angular acceleration (radians/s2)
2 = 1 + t
= 1 + 2 x t
2
= 1 t + t2
22 = 12 + 2
linear displacement, s = r
linear velocity, v = r
linear, or tangential acceleration, aT = r

Page 11

Tangential, Centripetal and Total Acceleration

Tangential acceleration aT is due to angular acceleration

a T = r

Centripetal (Centrifugal) acceleration ac is due to change in direction only

ac = v2/r = r 2
Total acceleration, a, of a rotating point experiencing angular acceleration is the vector sum
of aT and ac
a = a T + ac

FORCE
Vector quantity, a push or pull which changes the shape and/or motion of an object
In SI the unit of force is the newton, N, defined as a

kg m
s2

In Imperial the unit of force is the pound lb

Conversion: 9.81 N = 2.2 lb
Weight

The gravitational force of attraction between a mass, m, and the mass of the Earth
In SI weight can be calculated from
Weight = F = mg ,

where g = 9.81 m/s2

In Imperial, the mass of an object (rarely used), in slugs, can be calculated from the known
weight in pounds
m=

Weight
g

g = 32.2 ft2
s

Page 12

Newton's Second Law of Motion

An unbalanced force F will cause an object of mass m to accelerate a, according to:

(Imperial F = w
g a, where w is weight)

F = ma
Torque Equation

T=I

where T is the acceleration torque in Nm, I is the moment of inertia in kg m2

and is the angular acceleration in radians/s2

Momentum

Vector quantity, symbol p,

p = mv
in SI unit is

(Imperial p = w
g v, where w is weight)
kg m
s

Work

Scalar quantity, equal to the (vector) product of a force and the displacement of an object. In
simple systems, where W is work, F force and s distance
W = Fs
In SI the unit of work is the joule, J, or kilojoule, kJ
1 J = 1 Nm
In Imperial the unit of work is the ft-lb
Energy

Energy is the ability to do work, the units are the same as for work; J, kJ, and ft-lb

Page 13

Kinetic Energy

Energy due to motion

E k = 1 mv 2
2

In Imperial this is usually expressed as E k = w v 2 where w is weight

2g
Kinetic Energy of Rotation

1
E R = mk 2 2 where k is radius of gyration, is angular velocity in rad/s
2
or
1
E R = I 2
2

where I = mk2 is the moment of inertia

CENTRIPETAL (CENTRIFUGAL) FORCE

FC =

mv 2
r

where r is the radius

or
FC = m 2 r

where is angular velocity in rad/s

Potential Energy

Energy due to position in a force field, such as gravity

Ep = m g h
In Imperial this is usually expressed Ep = w h where w is weight, and h is height above some
specified datum

Page 14

Thermal Energy

In SI the common units of thermal energy are J, and kJ, (and kJ/kg for specific quantities)
In Imperial, the units of thermal energy are British Thermal Units (Btu)
Conversions:

1 Btu = 1055 J
1 Btu = 778 ft-lb

Electrical Energy

In SI the units of electrical energy are J, kJ and kilowatt hours kWh. In Imperial, the unit of
electrical energy is the kWh
Conversions:

1 kWh = 3600 kJ
1 kWh = 3412 Btu = 2.66 x 106 ft-lb

Power

A scalar quantity, equal to the rate of doing work

In SI the unit is the Watt W (or kW)
1 W = 1 Js

In Imperial, the units are:

Mechanical Power -

ft lb , horsepower h.p.
s

Thermal Power -

Btu
s

Electrical Power -

W, kW, or h.p.

Conversions:

746 W = 1 h.p.
1 h.p. = 550 ft s lb
1 kW = 0.948 Btu
s

Page 15

Pressure

A vector quantity, force per unit area

In SI the basic units of pressure are pascals Pa and kPa
1 Pa = 1 N2
m

In Imperial, the basic unit is the pound per square inch, psi
Atmospheric Pressure

At sea level atmospheric pressure equals 101.3 kPa or 14.7 psi

Pressure Conversions

1 psi = 6.895 kPa

Pressure may be expressed in standard units, or in units of static fluid head, in both SI and
Imperial systems
Common equivalencies are:
1 kPa = 0.294 in. mercury = 7.5 mm mercury
1 kPa = 4.02 in. water = 102 mm water
1 psi = 2.03 in. mercury = 51.7 mm mercury
1 psi = 27.7 in. water = 703 mm water
1 m H2O = 9.81 kPa
Other pressure unit conversions:
1 bar = 14.5 psi = 100 kPa
1 kg/cm2 = 98.1 kPa = 14.2 psi = 0.981 bar
1 atmosphere (atm) = 101.3 kPa = 14.7 psi

Page 16

Simple Harmonic Motion

Velocity of P = R 2 - x 2

m
s

Acceleration of P = 2 x m/s2
The period or time of a complete oscillation =

2
seconds

General formula for the period of S.H.M.

T = 2

displacement
acceleration

Simple Pendulum

T = 2

L
g

T = period or time in seconds for a double swing

L = length in metres

The Conical Pendulum

R/H = tan = Fc/W = 2 R/g

Page 17

Lifting Machines

W = load lifted,
M.A. =

F = force applied

W
load
=
effort
F

V.R. (velocity ratio) =

effort distance
load distance

M.A.
V.R.

= efficiency =

1. Lifting Blocks

V.R. = number of rope strands supporting the load block

2. Wheel & Differential Axle

Velocity ratio =

2 R
2 (r - r1 )
2

2R
2R
r - r1

Or, using diameters instead of radii,

Velocity ratio =

2D
(d - d 1 )

3. Inclined Plane

V.R. =

length
height

4. Screw Jack

V.R. =

circumference of leverage
pitch of thread

Page 18

Indicated Power

I.P. = Pm A L N

where I.P. is power in W, Pm is mean or "average" effective pressure in

Pa, A is piston area in m2, L is length of stroke in m and N is number of
power strokes per second

Brake Power

B.P. = T
where B.P. is brake power in W, T is torque in Nm and is angular
velocity in radian/second
STRESS, STRAIN and MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

Direct stress =

load P
=
area A

Direct strain =

extension
?
=
original length L

Modulus of elasticity
E=

PL
direct stress
P/A
=
=
direct strain ? / L A?

Shear stress =

Shear strain =

force
area under shear

x
L

Modulus of rigidity
G=

shear stress
shear strain

Page 19

General Torsion Equation (Shafts of circular cross-section)

T = = G
J r
L

1. For Solid Shaft

J=

4 d 4
r =
2
32

2. For Hollow Shaft

J = (r14 - r24 )
2

= (d 14 d 42 )
32

T = torque or twisting moment in newton metres

J = polar second moment of area of cross-section
about shaft axis.
= shear stress at outer fibres in pascals
r = radius of shaft in metres
G = modulus of rigidity in pascals
= angle of twist in radians
L = length of shaft in metres
d = diameter of shaft in metres

Relationship Between Bending Stress and External Bending Moment

M==E
y R
I

1. For Rectangle

M
I

y
E
R
I=

=
=
=
=
=
=

external bending moment in newton metres

second moment of area in m4
bending stress at outer fibres in pascals
distance from centroid to outer fibres in metres
modulus of elasticity in pascals
radius of currative in metres

BD 3
12

2. For Solid Shaft

4
I = D
64

Page 20

THERMODYNAMICS
Temperature Scales

5
C = ( F 32)
9

F =

9
C + 32
5

R = F + 460 (R Rankine)

K = C + 273 (K Kelvin)

Sensible Heat Equation

= mcT
m is mass
c is specific heat
T is temperature change

Latent Heat

Latent heat of fusion of ice = 335 kJ/kg

Latent heat of steam from and at 100C = 2257 kJ/kg
1 tonne of refrigeration = 335 000 kJ/day
= 233 kJ/min
Gas Laws
1. Boyles Law

When gas temperature is constant

PV
P1 V 1

constant or

= P2 V 2

where P is absolute pressure and V is volume

2. Charles Law

When gas pressure is constant,

or

V
= constant
T

V1 V2
, where V is volume and T is absolute temperature
=
T1 T2

Page 21

3. Gay-Lussac's Law

P
= constant
T

When gas volume is constant,

Or

P1 P2
=
, where P is absolute pressure and T is absolute temperature
T1 T2

4. General Gas Law

P1V1 P2V2
=
= constant
T1
T2

PV=mRT

where P
V
T
m
R

=
=
=
=
=

absolute pressure (kPa)

volume (m3)
absolute temp (K)
mass (kg)
characteristic constant (kJ/kgK)

where P
V
T
N
Ro

=
=
=
=
=

absolute pressure (kPa)

volume (m3)
absolute temperature K
the number of kmoles of gas
the universal gas constant 8.314 kJ/kmol/K

Also
PV = nRoT

SPECIFIC HEATS OF GASES

GAS
Air
Ammonia
Carbon Dioxide
Carbon Monoxide
Helium
Hydrogen
Hydrogen Sulphide
Methane
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Sulphur Dioxide

Specific Heat at
Constant Pressure
kJ/kgK
or
kJ/kg oC
1.005
2.060
0.825
1.051
5.234
14.235
1.105
2.177
1.043
0.913
0.632

Specific Heat at
Constant Volume
kJ/kgK
or
kJ/kg oC
0.718
1.561
0.630
0.751
3.153
10.096
0.85
1.675
0.745
0.652
0.451

Ratio of Specific
Heats
= cp / c v

1.40
1.32
1.31
1.40
1.66
1.41
1.30
1.30
1.40
1.40
1.40

Page 22

Efficiency of Heat Engines

Carnot Cycle =
sink

T1 T2
T1

where T1 and T2 are absolute temperatures of heat source and

Air Standard Efficiencies

1. Spark Ignition Gas and Oil Engines (Constant Volume Cycle or Otto Cycle)

=1-

where rv = compression ratio =

( - 1)
v

cylinder volume
clearance volume

specific heat (constant pressure)

specific heat (constant volume)

2. Diesel Cycle

(R 1)
= 1 - -1
rv (R - 1)

where r = ratio of compression

R = ratio of cut-off volume to clearance volume

3. High Speed Diesel (Dual-Combustion) Cycle

=1-

k - 1
rv - 1 [(k - 1) + k( - 1)]

where rv =

cylinder volume
clearance volume

k=

absolute pressue at end of constant V heating (combustion)

absolute pressue at beginning of constant V combustion

volume at end of constant P heating (combustion)

clearance volume

4. Gas Turbines (Constant Pressure or Brayton Cycle)

=1-

1
1

Page 23

where rp = pressure ratio =

compressor discharge pressure

compressor intake pressure

Page 24

Heat Transfer by Conduction

Q = AtT
d
where Q = heat transferred in joules
= thermal conductivity or coeficient of heat
transfer in 2J m or W
m C
m s C
2
A = area in m
t = time in seconds
T = temperature difference between surfaces in C
d = thickness of layer in m

COEFFICIENTS OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

Material

Air
Aluminum
Brass
Brick
Concrete
Copper
Cork
Felt
Glass
Glass, fibre
Iron, cast
Plastic, cellular
Steel
Wood
Wallboard, paper

Coefficient of
Thermal Conductivity
W/m C

0.025
206
104
0.6
0.85
380
0.043
0.038
1.0
0.04
70
0.04
60
0.15
0.076

Page 25

Thermal Expansion of Solids

Increase in length
where
L

(T2 T1 )
Increase in volume
Where
V

(T2 T1 )

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

L (T2 T1 )
original length
coefficient of linear expansion
rise in temperature
V (T2 T1 )
original volume
coefficient of volumetric expansion
rise in temperature

coefficient of volumetric expansion = coefficient of linear expansion x 3

= 3

Page 26

Chemical Heating Value of a Fuel

Chemical Heating Value MJ per kg of fuel = 33.7 C + 144 H 2 C

H2
O2
S

O2
8

) + 9.3 S

is the mass of carbon per kg of fuel

is the mass of hydrogen per kg of fuel
is the mass of oxygen per kg of fuel
is the mass of sulphur per kg of fuel

Theoretical Air Required to Burn Fuel

Air (kg per kg of fuel) =

[83 C + 8 (H

O2
8

) + S] 100
23

Air Supplied from Analysis of Flue Gases

Air in kg per kg of fuel =

C
N2
CO2
CO

N2
C
33 (CO 2 + CO)

is the percentage of carbon in fuel by mass

is the percentage of nitrogen in flue gas by volume
is the percentage of carbon dioxide in flue gas by volume
is the percentage of carbon monoxide in flue gas by volume

Boiler Formulae

Equivalent evaporation =

Factor of evaporation =

Boiler efficiency =

?s
where m
h1
h2
?f
m

=
=
=
=

? s (h 1 - h 2 )
m
2257 kJ/kg

(h 1 - h 2 )
2257 kJ/kg

? s (h 1 - h 2 )
m
? f x calorific value of fuel
m

mass flow rate of steam

enthalpy of steam produced in boiler
enthalpy of feedwater to boiler
mass flow rate of fuel

Page 27

FLUID MECHANICS
Discharge from an Orifice

Let A
and Ac
then Ac

=
=
=

or Cc

cross-sectional area of the orifice = (/4)d2

cross-sectional area of the jet at the vena conrtacta = ((/4) d c2
CcA
2
Ac dc
=
A d

where Cc is the coefficient of contraction

At the vena contracta, the volumetric flow rate Q of the fluid is given by
Q = area of the jet at the vena contracta actual velocity
= A cv
or Q = C cAC v 2gh

The coefficients of contraction and velocity are combined to give the coefficient of discharge,
Cd
i.e. C d = C cC v
and Q = C dA 2gh

Typically, values for Cd vary between 0.6 and 0.65

Circular orifice: Q = 0.62 A 2gh
Where Q = flow (m3/s)

A = area (m2) h = head (m)

Rectangular notch: Q = 0.62 (B x H) 2 2gh

3
Where B = breadth (m)

H = head (m above sill)

Triangular Right Angled Notch: Q = 2.635 H5/2

Where H = head (m above sill)
Page 28

Bernoullis Theory
P v2
+
w 2g
H = total head (metres)
h = height above datum level (metres)
P = pressure (N/m2 or Pa)

H = h+

w = force of gravity on 1 m3 of fluid (N)

v = velocity of water (metres per second)

Loss of Head in Pipes Due to Friction

2
Loss of head in metres = f L v
d 2g

L = length in metres
d = diameter in metres
pipes

v = velocity of flow in metres per second

f = constant value of 0.01 in large pipes to 0.02 in small

Note: This equation is expressed in some textbooks as

2
Loss = 4f L v where the f values range from 0.0025 to 0.005
d 2g
Actual Pipe Dimensions

Page 29

ELECTRICITY
Ohm's Law

I =

E
R

or

E = IR

where

I = current (amperes)
E = electromotive force (volts)
R = resistance (ohms)

Conductor Resistivity

L
a
= specific resistance (or resistivity) (ohm metres, m)
L = length (metres)
a = area of cross-section (square metres)

R =
where

Temperature correction
Rt = Ro (1 + t)
where Ro = resistance at 0C ()
Rt = resistance at tC ()
=
temperature coefficient which has an average value for copper of 0.004 28
(/C)
R2 = R1

(1 + t 2 )
(1 + t 1 )

where R1 = resistance at t1 ()
R2 = resistance at t2 ()
Values

/C

copper
platinum
nickel
tungsten
aluminum

0.00428
0.00385
0.00672
0.0045
0.0040

Page 30

Dynamo Formulae

Average e.m.f. generated in each conductor =

2 NpZ
60c

where Z = total number of armature conductors

c = number of parallel paths through winding between positive and negative brushes
where c = 2 (wave winding), c = 2p (lap winding)
= useful flux per pole (webers), entering or leaving the armature
p = number of pairs of poles
N = speed (revolutions per minute)
Generator Terminal volts = EG IaRa
Motor Terminal volts = EB + IaRa
where EG
EB
Ia
Ra

=
=
=
=

generated e.m.f.
generated back e.m.f.
armature current
armature resistance

Alternating Current

R.M.S. value of sine curve = 0.707 maximum value

Mean value of sine curve = 0.637 maximum value
R.M.S. value 0.707
Form factor of sinusoidal =
=
= 1.11
Mean value 0.637
Frequency of alternator =

pN
cycles per second
60

Where p = number of pairs of poles

N = rotational speed in r/min

Page 31

Slip of Induction Motor

Slip speed of field - speed of rotor

x 100
Speed of field
Inductive Reactance

Reactance of AC circuit (X) = 2fL ohms

where L = inductance of circuit (henries)
1.256T 2 A
henries
L x 10 8

Inductance of an iron cored solenoid =

where T

A
L

=
=
=
=

turns on coil
magnetic permeablility of core
area of core (square centimetres)
length (centimetres)

Capacitance Reactance

Capacitance reactance of AC circuit =

where

1
ohms
2 fC

C = capacitance (farads)

Total reactance = 2 fL ohms

2 fC

Impedence (Z) =
=

(resistance) 2 + (reactance) 2
R 2 + (2 fL -

1 2
) ohms
2 fC

Current in AC Circuit

Current =

impressed volts
impedance

Page 32

Power Factor

p.f. =

true watts
volts x amperes

also p.f. = cos , where is the angle of lag or lead

Three Phase Alternators

Star connected
Line voltage = 3 x phase voltage
Line current = phase current
Delta connected
Line voltage = phase voltage
Line current = 3 x phase current
Three phase power
P = 3 EL IL cos
EL = line voltage
IL = line current
cos = power factor

Page 33

Page 34

ION NAMES AND FORMULAE

MONATOMIC
Ag+
Al3+
Au+ and Au2+
Be2+
Ca2+
Co2+ and Co3+
Cr2+ and Cr3+
Cu+ and Cu2+
Fe2+ and Fe3+
K+
Li+
Mg2+
Na+
Zn2+

silver ion
aluminum ion
gold ion
beryllium ion
calcium ion
cobalt ion
chromium ion
copper ion
iron ion
potassium ion
lithium ion
magnesium ion
sodium ion
zinc ion

POLYATOMIC
BO33C2 H3 O2 ClOClO2ClO3ClO4CNCO32C2O42CrO42Cr2O72HCO3H3 O+
HPO42H2PO4HSO3HSO4MnO4N3 NH4+
NO2NO3O22OCNOHPO33PO43SCNSO32SO42S2O32-

borate ion
acetate ion
hypochlorite ion
chlorite ion
chlorate ion
perchlorate ion
cyanide ion
carbonate ion
oxalate ion
chromate ion
dichromate ion
hydrogen carbonate or bicarbonate ion
hydronium ion
hydrogen phosphate ion
dihydrogen phosphate ion
hydrogen sulphite or bisulphite ion
hydrogen sulphate or bisulphate ion
permanganate ion
azide ion
ammonium ion
nitrite ion
nitrate ion
peroxide ion
cyanate ion
hydroxide ion
phosphite ion
phosphate ion
thiocyanate ion
sulphite ion
sulphate ion
thiosulphate ion

Page 35