Musical analysis

This article is about the process or academic discipline of

music analysis. For the academic journal by that name,
see Music Analysis (journal).
Musical analysis is the means of answering directly

Others, such as Hans Keller (who devised a technique he

called Functional Analysis) used no prose commentary at
all in some of their work.
There have been many notable analysts other than Tovey
and Keller. One of the best known and most inuential was Heinrich Schenker, who developed Schenkerian
analysis, a method that seeks to describe all tonal classical works as elaborations (prolongations) of a simple
contrapuntal sequence. Ernst Kurth coined the term of
developmental motif . Rudolph Rti is notable for tracing the development of small melodic motifs through a
work, while Nicolas Ruwet's analysis amounts to a kind
of musical semiology.
Musicologists associated with the new musicology often
use musical analysis (traditional or not) along with or to
support their examinations of the performance practice
and social situations in which music is produced and that
produce music, and vice versa. Insights from the social
considerations may then yield insight into analysis methods.
Edward Cone (1989, ) argues that musical analysis lies in
between description and prescription. Description consists of simple non-analytical activities such as labeling
chords with Roman numerals or tone-rows with integers
or row-form, while the other extreme, prescription, consists of the insistence upon the validity of relationships
not supported by the text. Analysis must, rather, provide
insight into listening without forcing a description of a
piece that cannot be heard.

Approaches or techniques to musical analysis. Assumption and

advocating could be considered missing.

the question 'How does it work?'."(Bent 1987, 5) The

method employed to answer this question, and indeed exactly what is meant by the question, diers from analyst
to analyst, and according to the purpose of the analysis.
According to Ian Bent (1987, 6), its emergence as an
approach and method can be traced back to the 1750s.
However it existed as a scholarly tool, albeit an auxil- 2 Techniques
iary one, from the Middle Ages onwards. Adolf Bernhard Marx was inuential in formalising concepts about Many techniques are used to analyze music. Metaphor
composition and music understanding towards the second and gurative description may be a part of analysis, and
half of the 19th century (Pederson 2001).
a metaphor used to describe pieces, reies their features
The principle of analysis has been variously criticized, and relations in a particularly pungent and insightful way:
especially by composers, such as Edgard Varse's claim it makes sense of them in ways not formerly possible.
that, to explain by means of [analysis] is to decompose, (Guck 1994, 71) Even absolute music may be viewed as a,
to mutilate the spirit of a work (quoted in Bernard 1981, metaphor for the universe, or nature as, perfect form
(Dahlhaus 1989, 8, 29 cited in Bauer 2004, 131).
1).

2.1 Discretization

Analyses

The process of analysis often involves breaking the piece

Some analysts, such as Donald Francis Tovey (whose down into relatively simpler and smaller parts. Often,
Essays in Musical Analysis are among the most accessible the way these parts t together and interact with each
musical analyses) have presented their analyses in prose. other is then examined. This process of discretization
1

ANALYTICAL SITUATIONS

or segmentation is often considered, as by Jean-Jacques

(Nattiez 1990, 140)
Nattiez (1990), necessary for music to become accessible to analysis. Fred Lerdahl (1992, 11213) argues that Examples:
discretization is necessary even for perception by learned
listeners, thus making it a basis of his analyses, and nds
1. "...tackles only the immanent conguration of the
pieces such as Artikulation by Gyrgy Ligeti inaccessiwork. Allen Forte's musical set theory
ble (Lerdahl 1988, 235) while Rainer Wehinger (1970)
created a Hrpartitur or score for listening for the
2. "...proceed[s] from an analysis of the neutral level to
piece, representing dierent sonorous eects with spedrawing conclusions about the poietic. Reti (1951,
cic graphic symbols much like a transcription.
194206), analysis of Debussys la Cathdrale engloutie

2.2

Composition

Analysis often displays a compositional impulse while

composition often expresses display[s] an analytical impulse but where intertextual analyses often succeed
through simple verbal description there are good reasons
to literally compose the proposed connections. We actually hear how these songs resonate with one another, comment upon and aect one another...in a way, the music
speaks for itself (BaileyShea 2007, ). This analytic bent
is most obvious in recomposition including the mash-ups
of popular music.

Analytical situations

3. The reverse of the previous, taking a poietic

documentletters, plans, sketches ... and analyzes the work in the light of this information. Paul
Mie (1929), stylistic analysis of Beethoven in terms
of the sketches
4. The most common, grounded in perceptive introspection, or in a certain number of general ideas
concerning musical perception ... a musicologist ...
describes what they think is the listeners perception
of the passage Meyer (1956, 48), analysis of measures 911 of Bach's C minor fugue in Book I of the
Well-Tempered Clavier
5. Begins with information collected from listeners to
attempt to understand how the work has been perceived ... obviously how experimental psychologists
would work

Analysis is an activity most often engaged in by

musicologists and most often applied to western classical
6. The case in which an immanent analysis is
music, although music of non-western cultures and of unequally relevant to the poietic as to the esthesic.
notated oral traditions is also often analysed. An analysis
Schenkerian analysis, which, based on the sketches
can be conducted on a single piece of music, on a portion
of Beethoven (external poietics) eventually show
or element of a piece or on a collection of pieces. A muthrough analysis how the works must be played and
sicologists stance is his or her analytical situation. This
perceived (inductive esthesics)
includes the physical dimension or corpus being studied,
the level of stylistic relevance studied, and whether the
description provided by the analysis is of its immanent
3.1 Compositional analysis
structure, compositional (or poietic) processes, perceptual (or esthesic) processes (Nattiez 1990, 13536), all
Jacques Chailley (1951, 104) views analysis entirely from
three, or a mixture.
a compositional viewpoint, arguing that, since analysis
Stylistic levels may be hierarchized as an inverted trian- consists of 'putting oneself in the composers shoes,' and
gle:
explaining what he was experiencing as he was writing, it
is obvious that we should not think of studying a work in
universals of music
terms of criteria foreign to the authors own preoccupations, no more in tonal analysis than in harmonic analy system (style) of reference
sis.
style of a genre or an epoch
style of composer X
style of a period in the life of a com- 3.2 Perceptual analysis
poser
On the other hand, Fay (1971, 112) argues that, analytic
work
discussions of music are often concerned with processes
that are not immediately perceivable. It may be that the
(Nattiez 1990, 136, who also points to Nettl
analyst is concerned merely with applying a collection of
1964, 177, Boretz 1972, 146, and Meyer)
rules concerning practice, or with the description of the
Nattiez outlines six analytical situations, preferring the compositional process. But whatever he [or she] aims,
sixth:
he often fails -- most notably in twentieth-century music

3.5

Formalized analyses

-- to illuminate our immediate musical experience, and

thus views analysis entirely from a perceptual viewpoint,
as does Edward Cone (1960, 36), true analysis works
through and for the ear. The greatest analysts are those
with the keenest ears; their insights reveal how a piece
of music should be heard, which in turn implies how it
should be played. An analysis is a direction for performance, and Thomson (1970, 196): It seems only reasonable to believe that a healthy analytical point of view
is that which is so nearly isomorphic with the perceptual
act.

3.3

Analyses of the immanent level

Analyses of the immanent level include analyses by

Alder, Heinrich Schenker, and the "ontological structuralism of the analyses of Pierre Boulez, who says in his
analysis of The Rite of Spring (Boulez 1966, 142), must
I repeat here that I have not pretended to discover a creative process, but concern myself with the result, whose
only tangibles are mathematical relationships? If I have
been able to nd all these structural characteristics, it is
because they are there, and I don't care whether they were
put there consciously or unconsciously, or with what degree of acuteness they informed [the composers] understanding of his conception; I care very little for all such
interaction between the work and 'genius.'"
Again, Nattiez (1990, 13839) argues that the above
three approaches, by themselves, are necessarily incomplete and that an analysis of all three levels is required.
Jean Molino (1975a, 5051) shows that musical analysis
shifted from an emphasis upon the poietic vantage point
to an esthesic one at the beginning of the eighteenth century (Nattiez 1990, 137).

3.4

Nonformalized analyses

Nattiez distinguishes between nonformalized and formalized analyses. Nonformalized analyses, apart from musical and analytical terms, do not use resources or techniques other than language. He further distinguishes
nonformalized analyses between impressionistic, paraphrases, or hermeneutic readings of the text (explications
de texte). Impressionistic analyses are in a more or less
high-literary style, proceeding from an initial selection of
elements deemed characteristic, such as the following
description of the opening of Claude Debussy's Prelude to
the Afternoon of a Faun: The alternation of binary and
ternary divisions of the eighth notes, the sly feints made
by the three pauses, soften the phrase so much, render it
so uid, that it escapes all arithmetical rigors. It oats between heaven and earth like a Gregorian chant; it glides
over signposts marking traditional divisions; it slips so
furtively between various keys that it frees itself eortlessly from their grasp, and one must await the rst appearance of a harmonic underpinning before the melody

3
takes graceful leave of this causal atonality" (Vuillermoz
1957, 64).
Paraphrases are a respeaking in plain words of the
events of the text with little interpretation or addition,
such as the following description of the Boure of
Bachs Third Suite: An anacrusis, an initial phrase in D
major. The gure marked (a) is immediately repeated,
descending through a third, and it is employed throughout the piece. This phrase is immediately elided into its
consequent, which modulates from D to A major. This
gure (a) is used again two times, higher each time; this
section is repeated (Warburton 1952, 151).
Hermeneutic reading of a musical text is based on a description, a 'naming' of the melody's elements, but adds
to it a hermeneutic and phenomenological depth that, in
the hands of a talented writer, can result in genuine interpretive masterworks.... All the illustrations in Abrahams and Dahlhauss Melodielehre (1972) are historical
in character; Rosens essays in The Classical Style (1971)
seek to grasp the essence of an epochs style; Meyers
analysis of Beethovens Farewell Sonata (1973: 242-68)
penetrates melody from the vantage point of perceived
structures. He gives as a last example the following description of Franz Schubert's Unnished Symphony: The
transition from rst to second subject is always a dicult
piece of musical draughtsmanship; and in the rare cases
where Schubert accomplishes it with smoothness, the effort otherwise exhausts him to the verge of dullness (as in
the slow movement of the otherwise great A minor Quartet). Hence, in his most inspired works the transition is
accomplished by an abrupt coup de thtre; and of all such
coups, no doubt the crudest is that in the Unnished Symphony. Very well then; here is a new thing in the history
of the symphony, not more new, not more simple than
the new things which turned up in each of Beethovens
nine. Never mind its historic origin, take it on its merits. Is it not a most impressive moment?" (Tovey 1978,
2131990, 162163).

3.5 Formalized analyses

Formalized analyses propose models for melodic functions or simulate music. Meyer distinguishes between
global models, which provide an image of the whole
corpus being studied, by listing characteristics, classifying phenomena, or both; they furnish statistical evaluation, and linear models which do not try to reconstitute the whole melody in order of real time succession
of melodic events. Linear models ... describe a corpus
by means of a system of rules encompassing not only
the hierarchical organization of the melody, but also the
distribution, environment, and context of events, examples including the explanation of succession of pitches
in New Guinean chants in terms of distributional constraints governing each melodic interval by Chenoweth
(1972, 1979), the transformational analysis by Herndon
(1974, 1975), and the grammar for the soprano part in

DIVERGENT ANALYSES

Bachs chorales [which,] when tested by computer ... allows us to generate melodies in Bachs style by Baroni
and Jacoboni (1976, ).
Global models are further distinguished as analysis by
traits, which identify the presence or absence of a particular variable, and makes a collective image of the
song, genre, or style being considered by means of a
table, or classicatory analysis, which sorts phenomena into classes, one example being trait listing by
Helen Roberts (1955, 222), and classicatory analysis,
which sorts phenomena into classes, examples being
the universal system for classifying melodic contours by
Kolinski (1956). Classicatory analyses often call themselves taxonomical. Making the basis for the analysis
explicit is a fundamental criterion in this approach, so delimiting units is always accompanied by carefully dening
units in terms of their constituent variables.

3.6

Intermediary analyses

Nattiez lastly proposes intermediary models between reductive formal precision, and impressionist laxity. These
include Schenker, Meyer (classication of melodic structure in Meyer 1973, chapter 7), Narmour, and LerdahlJackendos use of graphics without appealing to a system of formalized rules, complementing and not replacing the verbal analyses. These are in contrast to the formalized models of Babbitt (1972) and Boretz (1969). According to Nattiez, Boretz seems to be confusing his own
formal, logical model with an immanent essence he then
ascribes to music, and Babbitt denes a musical theory as a hypothetical-deductive system ... but if we look
closely at what he says, we quickly realize that the theory also seeks to legitimize a music yet to come; that is,
that it is also normative ... transforming the value of the
theory into an aesthetic norm ... from an anthropological
standpoint, that is a risk that is dicult to countenance.
Similarly, Boretz enthusiastically embraces logical formalism, while evading the question of knowing how the
datawhose formalization he proposeshave been obtained (Nattiez 1990, 167).

Debussy Pelleas et Melisande prelude opening. Play

Nattiez (1990, 173) argues that this divergence is due

to the analysts respective analytic situations, and to
what he calls transcendent principles (1997b: 853, what
George Holton might call themata), the philosophical
project[s]", underlying principles, or a prioris of analyses, one example being Nattiezs use of the tripartitional
denition of sign, and what, after epistemological historian Paul Veyne, he calls plots.
Van Appledorn sees the succession as D:I-VII so as to allow the interpretation of the rst chord in measure ve,
which Laloy sees as a dominant seventh on D (V/IV) with
a diminished fth (despite that the IV doesn't arrive till
measure twelve), while van Appledorn sees it as a French
sixth on D, D-F-Ab-[C] in the usual second inversion.
This means that D is the second degree and the required
reference to the rst degree, C, being established by the
D:VII or C major chord. The need to explain the chord in
measure ve establishes that C-E-G is 'equally important'
as the D-(F)-A of measure one. Leibowitz (1971, ) gives
only the bass for chord, E indicating the progression I-II
an unreal progression in keeping with his "dialectic between the real and the unreal used in the analysis, while
Christ explains the chord as an augmented eleventh with a
bass of B, interpreting it as a traditional tertian extended
chord.

Divergent analyses

Typically a given work is analyzed by more than one person and dierent or divergent analyses are created. For
instance, the rst two bars of the prelude to Claude Debussy's Pellas et Mlisande:
are analyzed dierently by Leibowitz (1971), Laloy, van
Appledorn, and Christ (1966). Leibowitz analyses this
succession harmonically as D minor:I-VII-V, ignoring
melodic motion, Laloy analyses the succession as D:I-V,
seeing the G in the second measure as an ornament, and
both van Appledorn and Christ (1966, ) analyses the succession as D:I-VII.

Debussys Plleas et Mlisande prelude, measures 56. Play

Not only does an analyst select particular traits, they arrange them according to a plot [intrigue].... Our sense of
the component parts of a musical work, like our sense of
historical 'facts,' is mediated by lived experience. (176)
While John Blacking (1973, 1718), among others, holds

5
that there is ultimately only one explanation and ... this
could be discovered by a context-sensitive analysis of the
music in culture, according to Nattiez (1990: 168) and
others, there is never only one valid musical analysis for
any given work. Blacking gives as example: everyone
disagrees hotly and stakes his [or her] academic reputation on what Mozart really meant in this or that bar of
his symphonies, concertos, or quartets. If we knew exactly what went on inside Mozarts mind when he wrote
them, there could be only one explanation. (93) However, Nattiez points out that even if we could determine
what Mozart was thinking we would still be lacking an
analysis of the neutral and esthesic levels.
Roger Scruton (1978, 17576), in a review of Nattiezs
Fondements, says one may, describe it as you like so long
as you hear it correctly ... certain descriptions suggest
wrong ways of hearing it ... what is obvious to hear [in
Plleas et Mlisande] is the contrast in mood and atmosphere between the 'modal' passage and the bars which
follow it. Nattiez counters that if compositional intent
were identical to perception, historians of musical language could take a permanent nap.... Scruton sets himself
up as a universal, absolute conscience for the 'right' perception of the Plleas et Mlisande. But hearing is an active symbolic process (which must be explained): nothing
in perception is self-evident.
Thus Nattiez suggests that analyses, especially those intending a semiological orientation, should ... at least include a comparative critique of already-written analyses,
when they exist, so as to explain why the work has taken
on this or that image constructed by this or that writer:
all analysis is a representation; [and] an explanation of
the analytical criteria used in the new analysis, so that
any critique of this new analysis could be situated in relation to that analysiss own objectives and methods. As
Jean-Claude Gardin so rightly remarks, 'no physicist, no
biologist is surprised when asked to indicate, in the context of a new theory, the physical data and the mental
operations that led to its formulation' Gardin (1974, 69).
Making ones procedures explicit would help to create a
cumulative progress in knowledge. (177)

See also
List of music software (Section: Music analysis software)

References
Babbitt, Milton. 1972. Contemporary Music
Composition and Music Theory as Contemporary
Intellectual History. In Perspectives in Musicology:
The Inaugural Lectures of the Ph. D. Program in
Music at the City University of New York, edited
by Barry S. Brook, Edward Downes, and Sherman

Van Solkema, 270307. New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-02142-4. Reprinted, New York:
Pendragon Press, 1985. ISBN 0-918728-50-9.
BaileyShea, Matt (2007). "Filleted Mignon: A New
Recipe for Analysis and Recomposition". Music
Theory Online 13, no. 4 (December).
Bauer, Amy (2004). "'Tone-Color, Movement,
Changing Harmonic Planes: Cognition, Constraints, and Conceptual Blends in Modernist Music, in The Pleasure of Modernist Music: Listening, Meaning, Intention, Ideology, edited by Arved
Ashby, 12152. Eastman Studies in Music 29.
Rochester: University of Rochester Press; Woodbridge: Boydell and Brewer, Ltd. ISBN 1-58046143-3.
Bent, Ian (1987). Analysis. London: McMillan
Press. ISBN 0-333-41732-1.
Bernard, Jonathan. 1981. Pitch/Register in the
Music of Edgar Varse. Music Theory Spectrum
3:125.
Blacking, John (1973). How Musical Is Man?. Seattle: University of Washington Press. Cited in Nattiez (1990).
Boretz, Benjamin. 1969. Meta-Variations: Studies
in the Foundationbs of Musical Thought (I)". Perspectives of New Music 8, no. 1 (FallWinter): 1
74.
Boretz, Benjamin. 1972. Meta-Variations, Part
IV: Analytic Fallout (I)". Perspectives of New Music
11, no. 1 (FallWinter): 146223.
Chailley, Jacques. 1951. La musique mdivale,
with a preface by Gustave Cohen. Les grands musiciens 1. Paris: Coudrier.
Chenoweth. 1972. .
Christ, William (1966), Materials and Structure of
Music (1 ed.), Englewood Clis, NJ: Prentice Hall,
ISBN 0-13-560342-0, OCLC 412237 LCC MT6
M347 1966. Cited in Nattiez (1990).
Cone, Edward. 1989. Analysis Today. In Music:
A View from Delft, edited by , 3954. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-114705; ISBN 978-0-226-11469-9. Cited in Satyendra.
Dahlhaus, Carl. 1989. The Idea of Absolute Music,
translated by Roger Lustig. Chicago and London:
University of Chicago Press.
Guck, Marion A. (1994). Rehabilitating the incorrigible, Theory, Analysis and Meaning in Music, ed.
Anthony Pople. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press:57-74.

8
Laloy, L. (1902). Sur deux accords, Revue musicale. Reprinted in La musique retrouve. Paris:
Plon, 1928, pp. 11518. Cited in Nattiez (1990).
Lerdahl, Fred (1988/1992). Cognitive Constraints
on Compositional Systems. Contemporary Music
Review 6, no. 2:97121.
Leibowitz, Ren. (1971). Pellas et Mlisande ou
les fantmes de la ralit", Les Temps Modernes, no.
305:891922. Cited in Nattiez (1990).
Marx, Adolf Bernhard. 183747. Die Lehre von der
musikalischen Komposition IIV.Leipzig: Breitkopf
& Hrtel.
Meyer. 1973. .
Molino Jean. 1975a. .
Molino Jean. 1975b. .
Nattiez, Jean-Jacques 1990. Music and Discourse:
Toward a Semiology of Music, translated by Caroline Abbate. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
ISBN 0-691-02714-5. French original: Musicologie
gnrale et smiologue, Paris: , 1987.
Nettl, Bruno. 1964. .

EXTERNAL LINKS

7 Further reading
Cook, Nicholas (1992). A Guide to Musical Analysis. ISBN 0-393-96255-5.
Hoek, D.J. (2007). Analyses of Nineteenth- and
Twentieth-Century Music, 1940-2000. ISBN 08108-5887-8.
Kresky, Jerey (1977). Tonal Music: Twelve Analytic Studies. ISBN 0-253-37011-6.
Poirier, Lucien, ed. (1983). Rpertoire bibliographique de textes de presentation generale et
d'analyse d'oeuvres musicales canadienne, 19001980 = Canadian Musical Works, 1900-1980: a
Bibliography of General and Analytical Sources.
ISBN 0-9690583-2-2

8 External links
Example Musical Analyses showing the relationship
between voice leading and chord progression patterns Harmony.org.uk
Benoit Meudic, IRCAM, Musical Pattern Extraction: from Repetition to Musical Structure

Pederson, Sanna. 2001. Marx, (Friedrich Heinrich) Adolf Bernhard [Samuel Moses]". The New
Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second
edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell.
London: Macmillan Publishers.

Morphogenesis of chords and scales Chords and

scales classication

Reti, Rudolph. 1951. The Thematic Process in Music. .

iAnalyse, a musical analysis aided software by Pierre

Couprie

Rosen, Charles. 1971. The Classical Style. .

Mapping Tonal Harmony, app to study harmonic

functions and progressions in all keys

Satyendra, Ramon. Analyzing the Unity within

Contrast: Chick Coreas 'Starlight'". Cited in Stein
(2005).
Scruton, Roger. 1978. .
Stein, Deborah (2005). Engaging Music: Essays in
Music Analysis. Oxford and New York: Oxford
University Press. ISBN 0-19-517010-5.
Tovey, Donald Francis. 1978. .
Van Appledorn, M.-J. (1966). Stylistic Study
of Claude Debussys Opera Pellas et Mlisande".
Ph.D. Diss., Rochester: Eastman School of Music.
Cited in Nattiez (1990).
Vuillermoz. 1957. .
Warburton. 1952. .
Wehinger, Rainer. 1970. .

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