Benefits

The Alexander technique is used in three main ways. Originally, it was used to a
ddress the nuisance habits of actors
and musicians. As remedial movement education, it teaches freedom of movement, i
mproving specific self-imposed
limitations brought about by unconscious postural habits. It offers a means of a
ware self-observation and holistic
impulse control.
The remedial application includes alleviating pain and limitation as a result of
poor posture or repetitive physical
demands. The Technique improves pain management for chronic disability. It offer
s rehabilitation following surgery
or injury where compensatory habits were designed to avoid former pain that need
s to be eliminated after healing for
complete recovery. The Alexander technique has been proved to be an effective tr
eatment for chronic or recurrent
back pain in a randomized study published by the British Medical Journal Aug. 19
, 2008.[6]
As an example among performance art applications, the work is used and taught by
classically trained vocal coaches
and musicians. Its advocates claim that it allows for the free alignment of all
aspects of the vocal tract by consciously
increasing air flow, allowing improved vocal technique and tone. Because the tec
hnique has allegedly been used to
improve breathing and stamina in general, advocates also claim that athletes, pe
ople with asthma, tuberculosis, and
panic attacks have also found improvements.
It has also been informally reputed to allow height retention in older adults. S
ome adults gain height.
Along the application of impulse control, proponents of the technique suggest th
at it can eliminate stage fright, allow
more spontaneity, and to expand skill repertoire. It is suggested that it can be
an adjunct to psychotherapy for people
with disabilities, Post-traumatic Stress Disorder, panic attacks, stuttering, an
d chronic pain because using its
principles can improve stress management abilities.[7] [8]
Alexander technique 85
Influences of Alexander's work
The English novelist Aldous Huxley was influenced by F. M. Alexander and the tec
hnique to the extent he included
him as a character in the pacifist theme novel Eyeless in Gaza.[9]
The American philosopher and educator John Dewey became impressed with the Alexa
nder technique after his
headaches, neck pains, blurred vision, and stress symptoms largely improved duri
ng the time he used Alexander's
advice to change his posture.[10] [11] In 1923, Dewey wrote the introduction to
Alexander's Constructive Conscious
Control of the Individual.[12]
Since Alexander's work in the field came at the turn of the century, his ideas i
nfluenced many originators in the field
of mind-body improvement. Fritz Perls, who originated Gestalt Therapy, credited
Alexander as an inspiration for his
psychological work.[13] The Feldenkrais Method and the Mitzvah Technique were bo
th influenced by the Alexander
technique, in the form of study previous to the originators founding their own d
isciplines.
Teaching
The technique is most commonly taught privately in a series of twenty to forty p
rivate lessons which may last from
thirty minutes to an hour. Its principles have also been adapted to be taught in

groups and workshops. This often uses

short individual lessons demonstrated in turn which act as examples to the class
, along with other group activities
about principles. To qualify as a teacher of Alexander Technique, completion is
required of at least 1600 hours,
spanning at least three years of supervised teacher training. The result must be
satisfactory to qualified peers to gain
membership in professional societies.[2]
Scientific evidence
In 2011, a study of postural tone concluded that the Alexander Technique alters
the muscular tension along the spine
and hips that supports the body against gravity, reducing stiffness in these are
as.[14]
A 2008 randomised controlled trial published in the British Medical Journal foun
d marked improvement in
addressing back pain with this technique. Those receiving 24 lessons had 3 days
of back pain in a four week period,
18 days less than the control median of 21 days. The cohort receiving 6 lessons
had a reduction of ten days in
days-of-pain reported. Outcomes were also measured by Roland disability scores,
a measure of the number of
activities impaired by pain, with a control baseline of 8.1. 24 lessons reduced
this by 4.14 points, while six lessons
combined with exercise produced a reduction of 2.98.[] A subsequent analysis and
comparative study of the
economic implications concluded that "a series of six lessons in Alexander techn
ique combined with an exercise
prescription seems the most effective and cost effective option for the treatmen
t of back pain in primary care."[15]
In 2004, Maher concluded that "Physical treatments, such as acupuncture, backsch
ool, hydrotherapy, lumbar
supports, magnets, TENS, traction, ultrasound, Pilates therapy, Feldenkrais ther
apy, Alexander technique, and
craniosacral therapy are either of unknown value or ineffective and so should no
t be considered" when treating lower
back pain with an evidence-based approach.[16]
In 2002, Stalibrass et al. published the results of a significant controlled stu
dy into the effectiveness of the technique
in treating Parkinson's disease. Four different measures were used to assess the
change in severity of the disease. By
all four measures, Alexander technique was better than no treatment, to a statis
tically significant degree (both
P-values < 0.04). However, when compared to a control group given massage sessio
ns, Alexander technique was
only significantly better by two of the measures. The other two measures gave st
atistically insignificant
improvements (P-values of approximately 0.1 and 0.6). This appears to lend some
weight to the effectiveness of the
technique, but more studies and data are required.[17]
In 1999, Dennis ran a controlled study of the effect of Alexander technique on t
he "Functional Reach" (associated
with balance) of women older than 65. He observed a significant improvement in p
erformance after 8 sessions, but
this improvement was not maintained in a one-month follow-up.[18] With regard to
the claims made for reducing the
Alexander technique 86
need for medication in patients with asthma, Dennis concluded that additional "r
obust, well-designed randomized
controlled trials are needed."[19] (Note that Alexander technique teachers recom
mend more than three times or more

as many lessons than 8 to retain educational benefits.)

In 1973 Nikolaas Tinbergen referenced scientific evaluations of the Alexander te
chnique in his Nobel prize
acceptance speech.[20]
References
[1] Rootberg, Ruth (September 2007). Mandy Rees. ed. "Voice and Gender and other
contemporary issues in professional voice and speech
training". Voice and Speech Review, Voice and Speech Trainers Association, Inc,
Cincinnati, OH 35 (1): 164 170.
[2] Arnold, Joan; Hope Gillerman (1997). "Frequently Asked Questions" (http:/ /
www. alexandertech. org/ misc/ faq. html). American Society
for the Alexander Technique. . Retrieved 2007-05-02.
[3] Improvement in Automatic Postural Coordination Following Alexander Technique
Lessons in a Person With Low Back Pain - W Cacciatore
et al. 85 (6): 565 - Physical Therapy (http:/ / www. ptjournal. org/ cgi/ conten
t/ full/ 85/ 6/ 565)
[4] Body_Learning - An_Introduction to the Alexander Technique, Macmillan, 1996
ISBN_0805042067, quote p. 74, an article in New Scientist
by Professor John Basmajian entitled "Conscious Control of Single Nerve Cells"
[5] McEvenue, Kelly (2002). The Actor and the Alexander Technique (http:/ / book
s. google. com/ books?id=ixvTPRlcSMoC) (1st Palgrave
Macmillan ed.). New York: Macmillan. pp. 14. ISBN 0312295154. .
[6] Paul Little et al., Randomized controlled trial of Alexander technique (AT)
lessons, exercise, and massage (ATEAM) for chronic and
recurrent back pain (http:/ / www. bmj. com/ cgi/ content/ full/ 337/ aug19_2/ a
884), British Medical Journal, August 19, 2008.
[7] Aronson, AE (1990). Clinical Voice Disorders: An Interdisciplinary Approach,
. Thieme Medical Publishers. ISBN 0865773378.
[8] Vigeland, C (December 2000). "The Answer to a Stress Test". Sports Illustrat
ed Golf Plus 35 (1): 57.
[9] Aldous Huxley, Eyeless in Gaza, Harper and Brothers, 1936
[10] Ryan, Alan (1997). John Dewey and the high tide of American liberalism. New
York: W.W. Norton. pp. 187 188. ISBN 0-393-31550-9.
[11] John Dewey vs. The Alexander Technique (http:/ / dewey. area24. net)
[12] F. M. Alexander, Constructive Conscious Control of the Individual, E. P. Du
tton & Co., 1923, ISBN 0-913111-11-2
[13] http:/ / www3. interscience. wiley. com/ journal/ 112411834/ abstract?CRETR
Y=1& SRETRY=0 A note on the influence of F. M.
Alexander on the development of gestalt therapy by Roger Tengwall, School of Soc
ial Sciences, University of California, Irvine
[14] Cacciatore, T.W.; Gurfinkel, V.S., Horak, F.B., Cordo, P.J., Ames, K.E. (1
February 2011). "Increased dynamic regulation of postural tone
through Alexander Technique training". Human Movement Science 30 (1): 74 89. doi:1
0.1016/j.humov.2010.10.002.
[15] Sandra Hollinghurst et al., Randomised controlled trial of Alexander techni
que lessons, exercise, and massage (ATEAM) for chronic and
recurrent back pain: economic evaluation (http:/ / www. bmj. com/ cgi/ content/
full/ 337/ dec11_2/ a2656), British Medical Journal, 11
December 2008.
[16] Maher CG (January 2004). "Effective physical treatment for chronic low back
pain". Orthop. Clin. North Am. 35 (1): 57 64.
doi:10.1016/S0030-5898(03)00088-9. PMID 15062718.
[17] Stallibrass, C; P Sissons, C Chalmers (July 2002). "Randomised Controlled T
rial of the Alexander Technique for Idiopathic Parkinson's
Disease" (http:/ / www. londonalexander. co. uk/ CR544[1]. pdf) (PDF). Clinical
Rehabilitation 16 (7): 695 708.
doi:10.1191/0269215502cr544oa. PMID 12428818. . Retrieved 2007-05-01.
[18] Dennis, RJ (1999). "Functional reach improvement in normal older women afte
r Alexander Technique instruction" (http:/ / biomed.
gerontologyjournals. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 54/ 1/ M8). Journals of Geront

ology Series a : Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 54

(1): M8 11. doi:10.1093/gerona/54.1.M8. PMID 10026656. .
[19] Dennis, J; Cates, Christopher J; Dennis, Jane A (2000). "Alexander techniqu
e for chronic asthma" (http:/ / www. cochrane. org/ reviews/ en/
ab000995. html). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (2): CD000995. doi:10.1
002/14651858.CD000995. PMID 10796574. .
[20] http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ medicine/ laureates/ 1973/ tinberge
n-lecture. pdf, see p. 123
Alexander technique 87
Further reading
Alexander, FM Man's Supreme Inheritance, Methuen (London, 1910), revised and enl
arged (New York, 1918),
later editions 1941, 1946, 1957, Mouritz (UK, 1996), reprinted 2002. ISBN 0-9525
574-0-1
Alexander, FM Constructive Conscious Control of the Individual, Centerline Press
(USA,1923), revised 1946,
Mouritz (UK, 2004) ISBN 0-9543522-6-2, ISBN 978-9543522-6-4
Alexander, FM The Use of the Self, E. P. Dutton (New York, 1932), republished by
Orion Publishing, 2001, ISBN
0-7528-4391, ISBN 978-0752843919
Alexander, FM The Universal Constant In Living, Dutton (New York, 1941), Chaters
on (London, 1942), later
editions 1943, 1946, Centerline Press (USA, 1941, 1986), Mouritz (UK, 2000) ISBN
091311118X, ISBN
978-0913111185, ISBN 0-9525574-4-4
Brennan, Richard (May 1997). The Alexander Technique Manual. London: Connections
UK.
ISBN 1-85906-163-x.
Jones, Frank Pierce (May 1997). Freedom to Change; The Development and Science o
f the Alexander Technique.
London: Mouritz. ISBN 0-9525574-7-9.
Jones, Frank Pierce (1999). ed. Theodore Dimon, Richard Brown. ed. Collected Wri
tings on the Alexander
Technique. Massachusetts: Alexander Technique Archives. ISBN ATBOOKS058.
External links
Mouritz: F.M. Alexander Bibliography (http:/ / www. mouritz. co. uk/ 5. 01. FMA.
Bibliography. html)
The Monkey Squat (Position of Mechanical Advantage) (http:/ / www. easyvigour. n
et. nz/ fitness/ h_monkey.
htm)
Martial arts
Martial arts are extensive systems of codified practices and traditions of comba
t, practiced for a variety of reasons,
including self-defense, competition, physical health and fitness, as well as men
tal and spiritual development.
The term martial art has become heavily associated with the fighting arts of eas
tern Asia, but was originally used in
regard to the combat systems of Europe as early as the 1550s. An English fencing
manual of 1639 used the term in
reference specifically to the "Science and Art" of swordplay. The term is ultima
tely derived from Latin, martial arts
being the "Arts of Mars," the Roman god of war.[1]
Some martial arts are considered 'traditional' and tied to an ethnic, cultural o
r religious background, while others are
modern systems developed either by a founder or an association.
Variation and scope
Martial arts may be categorized along a variety of criteria, including:
Traditional or historical arts and contemporary styles of folk wrestling vs. mod
ern hybrid martial arts.
Regional origin, especially Eastern Martial Arts vs. Western Martial Arts

Techniques taught: Armed vs. unarmed, and within these groups by type of weapon
(swordsmanship, stick
fighting etc.) and by type of combat (grappling vs. striking; stand-up fighting
vs. ground fighting)
By application or intent: self-defense, combat sport, choreography or demonstrat
ion of forms, physical fitness,
meditation, etc.
Within Chinese tradition: "external" vs. "internal" styles
Martial arts 88
By technical focus
Unarmed
Unarmed martial arts can be broadly grouped into focusing on strikes, and those
focusing on grappling, and in
addition those combining these two fields, usually described as "hybrid".
Strikes
Punching: Boxing (Western), Wing Chun
Kicking: Capoeira, Kickboxing, Tae Kwon Do,
Other strikes: Kung Fu, Muay Thai, Choi Kwang Do
Grappling
Throwing: Glima, Judo, Sambo, Sumo
Joint lock/Chokes/Submission holds: Aikido, Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, Hapkido, Jujuts
u, Judo
Pinning Techniques: Judo, Shuai Jiao, Wrestling, Sambo
Weapons-based
Those traditional martial arts which train armed combat often encompass a wide s
pectrum of melee weapons,
including bladed weapons and polearms. Such traditions include eskrima, silat, K
alarippayattu, kobudo, and
historical European martial arts, especially those of the German Renaissance. Ma
ny forms of Chinese martial arts
also feature weapons as part of their curriculum.
Sometimes, training with one specific weapon will be considered a style of marti
al arts in its own right. This is
especially the case in Japanese martial arts with disciplines such as kenjutsu a
nd kendo (sword), bojutsu (staff), and
kyudo (archery). Similarly, modern Western martial arts and sports include moder
n fencing, stick-fighting systems
like canne de combat or singlestick, and modern competitive archery.
By application or intent
Combat-oriented
Many martial arts, especially those from Asia, also teach side disciplines which
pertain to medicinal practices. This
is particularly prevalent in traditional Indian martial arts which may teach bon
e-setting, and other aspects of
traditional Indian medicine.[2]
Martial arts can also be linked with religion and spirituality. Numerous systems
are reputed to have been founded,
disseminated, or practiced by monks or nuns.
For example, gatka is a weapon-based Indian martial art created by the Sikhs of
the Punjab region of India and the
Kshatriya caste of Hindus have another ancient martial art named Shastra vidhya.
Japanese styles, when concerning non-physical qualities of the combat, are stron
gly influenced by Zen philosophy.
Concepts like "empty mind" and "beginner's mind" are recurrent. Aikido, for inst
ance, has a strong philosophical
belief of the flow of energy and peace fostering, as idealised by its founder Mo
rihei Ueshiba.
Systema draws upon breathing and relaxation techniques, as well as elements of R
ussian Orthodox thought, to foster
self-conscience and calmness, and to benefit the practicioner in different level

s: the physical, the psychological and

the spiritual.[3]
Some martial arts in various cultures can be performed in dance-like settings fo
r various reasons, such as for evoking
ferocity in preparation for battle or showing off skill in a more stylized manne
r. Many such martial arts incorporate
music, especially strong percussive rhythms. See also war dance
Martial arts 89
History
Further information: Martial arts timeline
Historical martial arts
Further information: History of boxing and History of fencing
While evidence show that martial arts have roots in prehistory, the earliest evi
dence of systematic training in specific
martial arts traditions emerges in antiquity (late 1st millennium BC) in both As
ia and Europe.
The foundation of modern Asian martial arts is likely a blend of early Chinese a
nd Indian martial arts. During the
Warring States period of Chinese history (480-221 BC) extensive development in m
artial philosophy and strategy
emerged, as described by Sun Tzu in The Art of War (c. 350 BC).[4] Legendary acc
ounts link the origin of
Shaolinquan to the spread of Buddhism from India during the early 5th century AD
, with the figure of Bodhidharma,
to China.[5]
Boxing was practiced in the ancient Mediterranean.
In Europe, the earliest sources of martial arts traditions date to
Classical Antiquity. Boxing (pygme, pyx), Wrestling (pale) and
Pankration were represented in the Ancient Olympic Games. The
Romans produced gladiatorial combat as a public spectacle.
Martial arts 90
Systema has its roots in the combat skills of the medieval Russian warriors
During the Middle Ages, the development
of the cossacks as self-governing warrior
communities in the current region of
Ukraine and Southern Russia resulted in a
accumulation of fighting skills passed
through generations. Due to a wide variety
of climate and enemies, these people
developed versatile and fast-learning martial
habilities, which are considered to be the
roots of systema.[6] [7]
A number of historical combat manuals
have survived from the European Middle Ages. This includes such styles as sword
and shield, two-handed
swordfighting and other types of melee weapons besides unarmed combat. The most
famous of these is Johannes
Lichtenauer's Fechtbuch (Fencing book) of the 14th century, which today forms th
e basis of the German school of
swordsmanship. Likewise, Asian martial arts become well-documented during the me
dieval period, Japanese martial
arts beginning with the establishment of the samurai nobility in the 12th centur
y, Chinese martial arts with Ming era
treatises such as Ji Xiao Xin Shu, Indian martial arts in medieval texts such as
the Agni Purana and the Malla Purana,
and Korean martial arts with Joseon era texts such as Muyejebo (1598). "Historic
al martial arts" in both Asia and
Europe are mostly based on such records of the late medieval to early modern per
iod (15th to 17th centuries; see also
Koryu).

European swordsmanship was trained for duels until the Napoleonic era, and devel
oped into sport fencing during the
19th century. Modern boxing originates with Jack Broughton's rules in the 18th c
entury, and reaches its present form
with the Marquess of Queensberry Rules of 1867. Europe's colonization of Asian c
ountries also brought about a
decline in local martial arts, especially with the introduction of firearms. Thi
s can clearly be seen in India after the
full establishment of British Raj in the 19th century.[8] Similar phenomena occu
rred in Southeast Asian colonies such
as Malaysia, Indonesia, Vietnam and the Philippines.
Folk styles
All over the world, there are traditional styles of folk wrestling, and in some
cases also stick fighting, rooted in local
culture and folklore. In East and Southeast Asia, these are forms such as Korean
, Khmer or Mongolian wrestling and
Japanese Sumo, in South and Southwest Asia Indo-Persian Pehlwani, in Central and
Western Asia Turkic (Uzbek,
Tatar) styles; in Europe, there are Icelandic, Swiss and various English wrestli
ng traditions. African folk wrestling
includes the West African style of Lutte Traditionnelle.
While these arts are based on historical traditions of folklore, they are not "h
istorical" in the sense that they
reconstruct or preserve a historical system from a specific era. They are rather
contemporary regional sports that
coexist with the modern forms of martial arts sports as they have developed sinc
e the 19th century, often including