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Assignment: Design a single process unit plant to produce any product. Carefully explain
the sub units below: Introduction given justification of the design, flow sheet and layout,
mass and energy transfer (evemn if it is a physical process), mechanical design,
equipment selection, piping of material input and output, Risk analyses and
instrumentation and cost of setting up the plant.
Q
(kg / hr )................................................................................................4
t
Qv 3
(m / hr )......... ...................................................................................5
t
Increased quantity of raw material per reaction volume enhances economy of product unit
cost. Increased reactors geometrical dimension and productivity reduces the amount of
working capital by enhancing the heat utilization efficiency, utility coefficient of raw
material and the human resources. As a result of these economic advantages, for quite a
long time, intensification of production was directed at increasing the volume of reactors.
However, increased reactors volume is accompanied by corresponding technological
problems particularly hydraulic instability, non-uniform temperature and concentration
distribution. These problems have limited the scope of application of volume increase as
a means of intensification of technological process.
P Q
............................................................................................6
v tv
Qv
..........................................................................................................7
tv
P Q
...................................................................................................8
s ts
or
or
process. In the batch process materials are loaded into the reactor, where
they undergo a series of physico-chemical transformations and then
discharged after the required retention time. The units operations are labour
intensive and may not be easily mechanized. Automation of batch process is
very difficult to achieve due to the ever-changing technological parameters
(temperature, pressure / concentration, residence time, etc.). In continuous
process, loading of raw materials and discharging of the final product are
continuous and systematized. The technological processes are synchronized
with other secondary and transporting operations. At any given point in the
reactor, the temperature, pressure, concentration, etc. are constant. Hence it
is easy to observe the working regime, mechanize the loading and
discharging operations. Automation can be easily introduced. Better quality
products may be produced and utilization of heat from chemical reaction
better organized.
Mechanization of labour intensive operation and its automation is the most
prospective means of increasing efficiency. Mechanization is the substitution
of human labour with machines. Mechanization enhances productivity by
increasing the level of machines participation while reducing that of man.
Automation can be described as the exclusion of man from the production
processes by automatic mechanisms. Automation is a higher form of
mechanization. It greatly increases productivity and quality of product. In
chemical industry, the common parameters easily automated are
temperature, concentration, flow rate, etc.
Mans ability to obtain a 100% efficient process is still hampered by our
limited knowledge in materials behavior, plant layout techniques and the
consequent influence on plant operability, positioning and number of
compressors, heaters, the desired products etc.
Process design organizes the sequence of bringing together the required
physical and chemical operations. It involves defining the flowsheet,
operation conditions obtained from the material and energy balance,
specifications and materials of construction of the equipment, plant layout,
technical and economic feasibility of the project etc. The degree of
thoroughness of a process design depends on the complexity of the project.
For some only a preliminary design will suffice. Others may require a detailed
design to establish the technical and economic feasibility and safety of the
project.
Practically all engineering process designs involve these basic components:
transport reaction transport. The first transport involves the initial raw
materials or semi finished products from their sources to the reaction zone or
reactors. The second transport is for the removal of the finished products
from the reaction zone to the packaging zone or warehouses. In each of these
stages the focus is cost reduction.
Process equipment can be propriety or custom designed. Propriety equipment
are designed by the manufacturer based on the end user specifications like
pumps, cooling towers, compressors, dryers, mixers, valves, furnaces, etc.
Custom design of a part/unit of equipment is required to complete the
standardization. In specifying for these equipment, only characteristics that
define the process operating conditions are necessary. It is however advisable
to use the standard manufacturer specification form in making any order for
propriety equipment.
Propriety equipment are available off the shelf Custom-designed equipment
may sometime be requested to meet specific characteristics like safety, extra
large or miniature sizes etc. Both the propriety and custom designed
equipment are expected to comply with approved standards and codes from
government agencies, insurance and professional engineering bodies.
Standards and codes have been developed are being improved upon to meet
present
realities
to
ensure
safe
and
economic
design,
construction/fabrication, testing and maintenance of engineering equipment
and structures. Manufacturers and even contractors can develop their
specific standards and codes to ensure high product quality and efficiency of
production, handling and maintenance of processes. Although most standards
and codes are not legalized by the Act, they are respected by stakeholders
since they are seen as compendium of best experiences in their areas.
Modeling
Q 2. What is the role of modeling in the design of a process
technology?
Modeling means the study of a process or reactor through the physical or
mathematical equations or model; that is a simplified system that allows for
direct monitoring and control of phenomena in the process. Models are
prognoses tools for evaluation of chemico- technological processes and
working regime of industrial reactors.
System analysis may be considered in the following stages:
Preparation of rawChemical
materialsreaction or Preparation
conversion of the final product
can be measured using the quantity and quality of the product, working and
fixed capital investment, energy requirement, etc.
A diagram showing the sequential arrangement of aggregates in a process is
known as the technological scheme. Technological scheme of a chemicotechnological process can be divided into open and closed circuits. In the
open circuit system, the reacting components or at least one of the
components goes through the reactor only once. For processes with
insignificant extent of reaction two or more similar reactors are connected in
series. Example of open circuit system is the adsorption of SO 3 during the
production of H2SO4 at atmospheric pressure. Open circuit system is used for
both irreversible and reversible processes with high product output. For
processes with product output between 4 and 20% (synthesis of alcohol,
ammonia, etc.) and reactions containing insignificant amount of impurities,
the closed circuit is more economically feasible.
In the closed circuit, system reacting mixture or one of the phase is returned
to the reactor at least once, until the expected extent of reaction is attained.
Examples of closed circuit production processes include synthesis of
ammonia, alcohol, fuel gas, etc. It is also used in grinding where the extent of
reaction after each cycle is insignificant. Therefore the reacting mixture is
repeatedly returned to the reactor after partial or complete extraction of the
product, until the expected extent of conversion is attained. At each stage
fresh raw material, equal to that expended is added. Since in the reaction
process only the main components are involved, leaving the inert compounds
or impurities in the circulating mixture, it is necessary to remove part (purge)
of the reacting mixture after each cycle to reduce the concentration of the
impurities. The economic and ecological advantages of closed circuit system
are numerous. It helps to reduce the amount of carcinogenic substances
released to the environment.
In some heterogeneous processes, a combination of open and closed circuits
might be preferred. In the initial stage one of the reacting phases is
processed using the closed or open circuit. While in the final stage the other
open or closed circuit systems might be preferred. An example can be found
in the production of cement where grinding of raw mix is organised using the
closed, while sintering is by the open circuit systems. The combined system is
also used in the purification of flue and industrial gases. Technological
scheme of a chemico-technological system shows the type and method of
elements, bonds and sequence of technological operation. Each element
(machines, aggregates, etc.) is represented by accepted symbols and their
communication links (piping) shown with the help of arrows (Figure 3).
Technological scheme may also include information on the raw materials and
technological parameters. It is the result of researches into the production
Raw material
Crusher
De-dusting
device
Conveyor
Classifier
Mill
Weighing
Machine
Gypsum
Storage
Rotary furnace
Elevator
Heat source
Mass transfer
Chemical
Reaction
Classification
Auxiliary operators
Compression and
expansion
Conversion of
aggregate state
Heating or
cooling
Mixing
Technological operators in technological scheme give the concise information about the
interrelation of elements and physico-chemical processes (Figure 6).
VA
VC
Vf
VD
VB
Preparation of raw
Chemical reaction
materials
materials
Figure 6 Technological operators scheme
Mixing of
Plant Layout
Q5 How will you from the details contained in the plant layout
determine the required space for a production process?
The choice of site is influenced by many factors. In this project it is
assumed that the plant will be located at a site that will ensure easy
availability of cassava tubers. Political consideration is ignored in this
project. However it is expected that all administrative standards/laws
enforced by the Local, State and Federal Governments will be met. It is
expected that the factory will have basic utilities water, electricity,
access roads, etc.
The basic input data for the space requirement were obtained from the
design
calculations
and
techno-economic
considerations.
The
Peeling unit
Manual
Productivity
16,000kg/day
Washing unit
Washing basins
Number
Dimension
3x4m
150kg
Unit
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Subtotal
Space allocated, m
Length
Width
10
10
5
5
5
5
2
2
6
10
3
3
1.5
1
9
3
2
2
3
3
10
10
56.5
10
11.3
2
66.8
12
Hammer mill/grater
Diameter of shaft
600mm
Length of mill
400mm
Velocity of bits
1250rev/min
Dimension of mill
Length
0.45m
Width
0.65
Height
1.10m
Productivity
2000kg/hr
10kW
Detoxification tank
Number of tanks
Volume/Mass
22m3/(7000kg/tank)
Length
5.6m
Bottom diameter
2.4m
Height
1.3m
Number of blades
Shaft diameter
95mm
6kW
Water jacket
Height
1m
Total area
9.63m3
1x10-3kg/s
50mm
Speed
2000rev/min
Through put
Liquid
300l/hr
Solid
1000kg/hr
Bowl diameter
700mm
Length
1.4m
Electric power
5kW
Rotary disintegrator/classifier
Length
Diameter
1.0m
0.4m
Electric motor
7
5kW
Dryer
Length
7.7m
Diameter
1.6m
Heat exchanger
200mm
50mm
Number of pipes
5.6kW
Productivity
928.8kg/hr
800mm
Velocity of bits
40m/s
Height of mill-separator
2.1m
Productivity
2000kg/hr
Electric power
5kW
<180m
Collector
Main cyclone: height
2m
Diameter
500mm
Feed inlet
125x250mm
Outlet
250mm
Flour outlet
125mm
Packaging unit
Storage tank
Capacity
4000kg
Number
Packaging equipment
Productivity
10000kg/day
4
5
Side View
12m
Top View
In designing new factory, it is necessary to perform technical and technoeconomical evaluations to ascertain the viability of the project. Various
engineering specialists in chemical, mechanical, electrical, civil structure,
are involved in the designing process.
The initial parameters required may include:
1.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Location of factory.
2.
The capacity.
3.
Type of products.
Type and quantity of raw materials.
Technology of production.
Technological regime.
Type of reactors and secondary machines.
Process control. Etc.
Optimization of these parameters is necessary to ensure maximum
productivity, not only for the individual processes, but also of the entire plant.
For example the chemical preparedness of Al 2O3, Fe2O3, SiO2 and CaO in
cement raw mix increases with higher fineness and homogeneity. However,
increased fineness and homogeneity means higher cost of grinding, and dedusting operations and consequently increased cost of production. Therefore
optimum fineness and homogeneity should be determined considering the
cost of grinding, homogenization and de-dusting operations.
The process of designing is performed in two basic phases: the initial or
conceptual and the detailed design. Quality management should form an
integral part of the various stages of engineering design. This will enhance
not only successful attainment of set goals, but maximization of available
resources.
Q6. Discuss the three stages of a plant design.
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN STAGE
Quality management of engineering design starts with "raw material" or
information gathering and control. The engineering portion of quality
management plan addresses the design activities that occur during the
conceptual design stage. The main feature of design work is the technological
calculations. This should be performed for various process routes before the
b.
Operating and design conditions for the various units and devices;
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
Environmental requirements;
i.
Safety, constructability and technology. These are the three issues that
must be treated together during the conceptual design stage. The
quality management plan must allow for the consideration of options
of
various
disciplines
construction-structure,
operations,
maintenance, research and development, safety, industrial hygiene,
contracting, etc.
j.
Data gathering can be very difficult to achieve due to market influences and
competitive nature of business operations. However, an alternative to
incomplete data availability is to perform some thorough economic analysis.
This will ascertain the feasibility of each design unit - raw materials'
qualities / quantities, plan schedules, budgeting, procurement, construction,
etc.
After the choice of process route and direction of materials and products flow, the
materials (mass) and energy balance are calculated. From these data, the technical and
technological parameters of the reactors (size, capacity, residence time, etc.) are
calculated. Mathematical modelling of the processes and reactors are also performed at
this stage. The reactors construction materials should be determined considering the
corrosiveness of the medium, working temperature, pressure, service life, etc. From the
overall capacity of the factory, the number of reactors and other devices are calculated.
During the technological calculation, the hydrodynamic, heat and mass transfer and
chemical kinetics data are evaluated to find the optimum technological regime and
consequently choice of required equipment. Mass and energy balance are calculated
during design of new factory or analyses of old ones. Examples will be considered later.
MATERIAL BALANCE
Q7. What is the principal reason for a plant material and energy
balance?
According to the law of conservation of mass, mass can not be destroyed or
created during chemical reactions. That is the mass of reactant(s) must be
equal to that of the product(s). Material balance is calculated from the main
chemical reaction, taking into consideration all the secondary reactions and
impurities.
For the continuous process, material balance is calculated for a given period
of time. That is the feedstock to the reactor at a given time is equal to the
output. The total mass of material in a reactor is constant. The quantity of
material should be calculated independently for the solid, liquid and gas.
M s M l M g M s1 M l1 M g1 ..................................................9
where Ms, Ml and Mg mass of feedstock; Ms1, Ml1 and Mg1 mass of output
(product).
In most production processes the reactants could exist in one or two
phase(s), thus simplifying the equation 9. In designing, the productivity of a
plant (factory) is usually given and consequently the quantity of raw
materials required can be calculated. The ratio of the quantity of the raw
materials required to produce a unit mass of the product is referred to as the
utility coefficient. It expresses the amount of raw material required to
produce a unit mass (kg, ton, mole) of the product. In calculating the material
balance, it is necessary to:
1.
2.
3.
M g M g 1 M g M gd ..................................10
where Mg1 is the resultant increase in reactant mass, M gd resultant increase
as a result of mass transfer (adsorption, absorption, condensation, etc.).
For example, in plug flow reactor at stationary state, the material balance of
reactant A, per unit time can be represented as in equation 11.
M Ao M A f M A .............................................................................11
where MAo - feedstock (input) of reactant A, MAf output of A, MA quantity of
A involved in chemical reaction. In the differential form, the material balance
for a stationary state system can be expressed through the flow rate, w, per
height or length H, of the reactor, or change in concentration M A or rate of
change of A due to chemical reaction or mass transfer in gas phase u A.
w(
C A
) u A .............................................................................................12
H
where w(CA/H) transfer of reactant A per unit height, that is the difference
in mass of A entering an infinite elementary volume of reactor and that
leaving it. This is equal to M Ao MAf. In non-stationary regime where the
feedstock is more than that used
C A
C
w( A ) u A .............................................................................................13
t1
H
where CA/t1 rate of increase of reactant A in an infinite elementary
volume, t1 time required for the increase.
ENERGY BALANCE
According to the law of energy conservation, the total energy in a closed
system is constant. In chemico-technological processes the law of
conservation of mass is the bases on which energy balance is computed; the
total amount of energy released to a system must be equal to that expended.
Heat balance is calculated using the material balance and heat of physical
and chemical changes occurring in the reactor, taking to account the external
heat sources and losses through products removal and the reactors wall.
The energy balance computation can be represented as
Q McT ...........................................................................................................15
where M mass (kg) or mass flow rate (kg/s), c specific heat capacity (J/
(mol.K) and T (K) temperature.
For gases the specific heat capacity at constant pressure and a given temperature T can be
determined using
C p a o a1T a 2T 2 ............................................................................................16
The coefficients ao, a1 and a2 are known values and can be got from chemical
handbooks.
For mixtures, the specific heat capacity c m can be calculated applying the
additive law. For example, in an n component mixture with c 1, c2, c3cn, the
cm
m1c1 m2 c 2 m3 c3 .......mn c n
................................................................17
m1 m2 m3 .........mn
For solids, except for those shown below, the elements atomic heat content is the same
and is approximately equal to 27J/(mol.K), while the molecular heat content is the sum of
their atomic heat content.
Elements
Si
CP, J/(mol.K)
14.4
13.9
7.5
14.6
20.9
20.2
22.6
16.28
The heat content of the liquids may also include the latent heat of fusion and
in case of gases heat of vaporization. Heat released during physical
changes; crystallization, condensation, adsorption, etc. should also be
computed during heat balance.
Q p m1 r1 m2 r2 m3 r3 ............................................................................18
where m1, m2, , m3 . heat of phase transition. It is also necessary to
compute the heat adsorbed as a result of desorption of gases, vaporization,
fusion, etc. Heat of exothermic and endothermic reactions should be
calculated form the chemical equation for each of the processes.
A B D H .........................................................................................19
The total heat is the sum of each individual reaction.
Qin heat released to the chemical reactor should be calculated from the heat
lost by the heat carrier (steam, air, water, etc.).
Assignment
Q8. Design a very simple technological process of your choice.
Carefully mimic the example below.
To be submitted by the 10th Week
Example
BAKING OF PASTRIES
Introduction
The major ingredient used for baking of cake is flour. Others include water, egg, sugar,
colour, baking soda, etc. depending on what you want. The procedure and a simple recipe
could be 500g of flour poured into a bowl together with 250g butter, 250g sugar, 125g of
egg, 50g baking soda, 25g of water, 10g nut and 2g flavor (Total weight of 1212g). The
weighed out materials are mixed manually or mechanically in a mixer for 30 minutes to
form a consistent paste. The paste is now put in a pan of a desired shape and transferred
to an oven with temperature of 120-150oC. The residence time in the oven is 90 minutes.
The cake from the oven is cooled to ambient temperature.
Assumptions
There are no chemical reactions involved in the process except for organic
Schematic Diagram
The schematic diagram gives a pictorial description of the materials flow and
transformation at the unit operations in the process. For beginners it is recommended to
always indicate the operating conditions (temperature, concentration or pressure, mass,
etc.) in each unit diagram. Ability to identify all possible technological secondary and
primary technological products will help in the development of the material and energy
balances. From the description of the process:
ii Identify the possible physical or chemical reactions taking place. For each
reaction, schematically draw the reacting processes or units indicating the
inputs and outputs streams.
iii Identify the nature of the input stream and decide if you require a mixer or a
separator or a compressor, etc.
Oil
Flour
Butter
Water
Baking Soda
Mixer
Oven
at 120oC
Product at 30oC
Paste at 30oC
Technological loss
Water (Steam)
Low volatile
In, g
Percentage
Flour
500
41.25
Butter
250
20.62
Out, g
Percentage
Sugar
250
20.62
Egg
125
10.31
Baking soda
45
3.71
Water
25
2.06
Nuts
10
0.82
Flavor
0.17
Oil
0.41
Paste
1200
99.01
Technological loss
12
0.99
1212
100
Total
1212
99.98
In, g
Percentage
Out, g
Percentage
Paste
1200
100
1150
95.83
Steam
40
3.33
Oil
0.58
0.25
1200
99.99
Total
1200
100
Experimental values were not used in developing the material balance. Results obtained
from the material balance help in computing the mass of the materials in the reaction
zone for the duration of the residence time. For a batch process as in baking of cake, the
calculated mass can be converted to volume to enable us estimated the volume of space
to be occupied by the paste. It is important to note that the adopted technological regime
is dependent on the mass/volume of material to be processed. The bigger the mass the
more energy is required for the mixing, the bigger the size of the mixer, the toughness of
the material of construction, etc.
Energy Balance
According to the law of conservation of energy, the total energy in a closed system is
constant. In any process, the law of conservation of mass is the basis on which energy
balance is computed. The total energy introduced or released to a system must be equal to
that expended. In endothermic process, energy is supplied to the system to initiate the
reaction. In exothermic the system will generate the required energy.
Mixing
In this process, the reactions taking place is more of gel formation of the flour particles.
Work done is by mechanical mixing whether by hand or transmission via a shaft can be
calculated using Nusselt criteria equation. The quality of mixing is strongly determined
by the medium temperature, kinematic viscosity of the feed and the frequency of rotation
of the shaft.
Nu f =0.87
0.62
m
Pr
1 /3
f
f
w
0.14
( )
m =
d2 f
D
Nuf =
v
For example, Qs for natural gas, 35615kJ/nm3. Therefore, the quantity of gas required for
the process will be Q1/35615nm3.
The computed values should be tabulated and presented as in Table 3.
Table 3 Heat balance in the Oven
Heat supplied
Value, kJ
Heat utilized
Kj
Burning of Fuel
Q1
Initial
content of air in
the oven
Initial
heat Q3 = mpcpTp
content of the
Heat
lost
to
converted to steam
paste
Heat lost oil
Heat
lost
Q7 = mocoTo
to
Mechanical Design
Mixer
b=R
h
D
Figure 2 Schematic diagram of a horizontal blade mixer
The criteria equations enable us to find the diameters of the blades and mixer. The
starting power for a shaft horizontal blade mixer can be calculated
2 z T 1 27 2 z F b 3
z
Ng=
=
=60. 108 F b D 3 n3
102
64.2 .102
Where N power required at start up, kW, z number of blade pair; mechanical
efficiency of the motor; velocity, m/s; D diameter (Figure ), m; n frequency, rev/s;
T1 life force require to move the mass at rest =
T1=
G 3o F b 2o
=
2g
2
Fb =b h sin
Oven
The question was how would the next generation of oven look like?
The quantity of heat lost to the surrounding speaks of the heat retention efficiency of the
process. The objective is to reduce the loss during the design through better materials
selection.
The oven has a double layer with a middle air space
Qloss = Q8 = kFT
K is the coefficient of heat transfer, w/m2.oC
k=
1
1 1
+ +
1 2
Where 1 is the heat transfer coefficient of the inner stainless steel plate, w/m2.oC. It is
approximately determined as
1 = 9.3 + 0.058Tw = 9.3 + 0.058x120 = 16.26w/m2.oC; where Tw is the inner wall
temperature.
= air insulator thickness assumed to be 5mm
= coefficient of thermal conductivity of air, = 0.024 w/m2.oC
2 = 9.3 + 0.058Tw = 9.3 + 0.058x30 = 11.04w/m2.oC; where Tw is the outer wall
temperature.
K = 0.447 w/m2.oC
T = 120 - 30 = 90 oC
Q8 = 0.447x90F
From the energy balance the value of Q8 could be computed and then F, the heat transfer
surface area could be calculated. Let us assume that the Q8 = 45W
Then the heat loss surface area F = 45/(0.447x90) = 1,11m2
An oven has 6 sides. Let us assume that heat is evenly supplied to the working area from
3 sides. Each side will then be = 1.11/3 = 0.37m 2. For square shaped the length and the
breadth = 0.61m.
The beauty of design is determined by the ability to define the aesthetics of your product.
In determining the aesthetics, it is important to consider the following factors.
high pressure,
The points of charging and discharging of materials and energy (flue gases
or effluent), and
The dynamics or pattern of heat transfer, etc.
It is important to ensure uniform heat supply to materials fired. The calculated heat
transfer area is not the same as the final volume of the working zone. The working zone
volume is determined by that of the material or cake depending on which has the greater
volume.
For reactors in continuous flow system, the F is equivalent to the zone of desired primary
and secondary reactions. The materials are placed on mobile bed. The volume of material
in this zone at any given time is determined by its flow rate and the residence time. In the
given example of cake, the paste cuts are placed on the mobile bed moving at constant
velocity; calculated using the residence time of reaction or baking time.
For cylindrical shaped mobile oven the heat transfer surface area F = circumference x
length of the reaction zone F = 2 rL. F = 2 rL.
For box shaped mobile oven F = Length x Breadth
The heat transfer surface area, F is part of the working volume space. F location should
ensure effective heat contact with the material. The F either is at a single point in the
oven or distributed horizontally and vertically to different points/area along the oven.
Unlike fixed bed or batch oven, the materials and energy flow could be in co or counter
current direction. T is therefore calculated using the log mean value.
Q = kFT
Where k overall heat transfer coefficient, kW/m2.oC
F heat transfer surface area, m2.
T mean temperature at ambient temperature of 30oC.
k is a function of the oven construction material stainless steel sheet. For ease of
comparison, the same materials of construction will be selected as in the batch.
Consequently, the k value remains the same.
At kiln outlet temperature of 70oC
120 30 70 30
2.3 lg
Q
K T
120 30
70 30
45
0.447 x61.72
Check: Tw = 30 +
50
0.81
= 1.63m2
k
T
30 + (0.447x61.72)/16.26 = 31.7oC.
At kiln outlet temperature of 60oC
= 61.72oC
T = 54.67oC.
F = 1.84m2.
Check: Tw = 31.5oC.
ToutletoC
ToC
F,m2
TwoC
60
54.67
1.84
31.5
70
61.72
1.63
31.7
80
68.13
1.48
31.9
One striking observation is that the Tw remain practically at the same level. It shows that
the initial material of construction used for the batch process is more than adequate for
the continuous process. Increase in the quantity of heat lost with the outgoing gases
results in decrease in the heat transfer surface area. In other words, we can choose to pay
more for energy during the operation of the plant and spend less now on capital cost for
materials. The calculated F for the batch is smaller. The higher F value for continuous is
due to the required cooling zone area. Let us assume that a tunnel oven will be use with a
circumference of radius equal to the length of the stationary cubic oven earlier designed.
F = Dxlength
1.84 = 3.142x0.61xL; L = 0.96m.
0.61m
0.61m
Figure 4 Proposed tunnel shaped Oven with heat transfer area in the tunnel wall and
mobile bed material.
3.02m
0.61m
Figure 5 Proposed box shaped Oven with heat transfer area embedded in the mobile bed
carrying the materials
The calculated F is part of the reaction volume calculated from the material balance. For
fixed bed or stationary regime, the calculated heat transfer area is embedded in the
volume is to ensure uniform distribution of heat to the materials (Figure 3).
The major advantage of Figure 4; the proposed tunnel shaped Oven with immobile heat
transfer area in the tunnel wall and mobile bed material, over Figure 3 is the possibility of
heat retention within and mechanization of the charging and discharging areas.
In Figure 5, both the material and the heat sources are mobile. In dynamic or mobile
regime, the nature of the materials, the reactions regime, etc. determined the material and
heat flow pattern (co or counter current flow). In baking, to allow for gradual evaporation
of water a counter current flow pattern is used. The volume of material in the heat
transfer area is regulated by the velocity of the mobile bed; which is determined by the
time required for evaporation of water (drying), secondary and primary reactions.
Ancillary Equipment
These are equipment required to support optimum production process. For example, the
heat required for the process comes from burning of natural gas in a furnace. The
temperature generated could be higher than that expected in the reaction zone. The
burning chamber might be some distance from the reactor. It follows that you need to
store the natural gas, burn it in a chamber, and then mix with air and finally pipe to the
reactor. The process will therefore require a pressurized storage tank, a compressor, a
specialized burner. Simple put you will need a heat-generating unit as part of the
production unit. These equipment capacity, power rating, productivity, etc. are selected
based on the design calculations.
References
1. Odigure J. O. (2013) Introduction to Principle of Chemical Processes.
ISBN 987-2-639-51749-1 Scholar Press. Germany. 304p.
2. Odigure J. O. (2013) Modeling and Simulation of Chemical Reacting
Systems and Environment. ISBN 987-2-639-51769-2 Scholar Press.
Germany. 287p.
3. Odigure J. O. (2013) Introduction to Design for Small and Medium
Chemical Processes. ISBN 978-3-639-70619-2 Scholar Press.
Germany. 267p
4. Perry R.H. and D.W. Green Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, 7th
edition, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1997.
Product
Figure 4.2 Capacity-type reactor
Reactions such as listed below could be conducted in capacity type or
tubular reactors (Figure 4.3).
2C3H8
2CH4
CH4 C
+ 2H2
CnH2n+2
C2H4 + Cn-2H2n-2
ClCH2 -CH2Cl
CH3CHCl + Cl.
RH + SO2 + Cl2
R-SO2Cl + HCl
II.
reactor.
III.
It is an approximated
Coolant
Coolant
Product
Figure 4.3 Tubular reactor with heat exchanger
IV.
Coolant in
Figure 4.4
Tube-in-tube reactor
For liquid phase homogeneous processes, reactors with mechanical and pneumatic mixers
are used. Increased efficiency is achieved by increasing the residence time of material in
the reactor via increasing the effective length of the reaction compartment, utilizing cocurrent flow of materials and column reactors. Liquid phase reactors are equipped with
heat exchangers for heating or cooling of the reactants. Mixing can be by mechanical or
pneumatic methods. Examples include the stirred reactor with propeller mixer (Figure
4.5), pneumatic mixer (Figure 4.6) and spray-injector (Figure 4.7).
Air
Reactant
Shaft
Reactant
Product
Product
Figure
propeller mixer
pneumatic mixer.
L
Flue gas
G
Product
4.6
Schematic presentation
Packed bed
and tubular
Mixing regime,
flow pattern and
processes
Characteristics
Average efficiency.
High energy
consumption and
selectivity, reliable
and stable in
operation.
Low efficiency.
Simple to construct.
Easy to control and
regulate.
G
L
L
G
L
L
Fluidized
liquid layer
G
L
a. With
grids
b. Bubble
cap
L
Fluidized
liquid bed
G
L
L
Fluidized
column
L
G
Tubular
Tube in
Tube
Coolant
G
L
G
L
Coolant
Spraying of
the liquid
phase
a.
Capacitytype
G
G
b. Cyclone
scrubber
G
Low efficiency.
High energy
consumption, small
hydraulic
resistance. Not
stable in operation.
L
G
Cap
Upper
flow
pipe
Gas
Gas
L
Figure 4.9 Construction of bubble reactors
At a higher air velocity, the film layers will be destroyed and the liquid carried away with
the outgoing gas in form of capsules. Film reactors are commonly used in the purification
of flue gases.
G
L
L
L
L
G
with sprayer
Maximum heat transfer from the heat carrier to the materials (reactants).
b.
c.
High productivity.
d.
e.
f.
Operational stability.
g.
1.
iii.
2.
Method of heating
a. Directly heated furnace. These are subdivided into furnaces in which the heat
energy is:
1.
2.
Released directly on the material, the burning of the material takes place
inside the furnace, as is the case in shaft furnace.
3.
Transferred via radiation from the hot solid bodies via a medium to the
reactants as in tunnel furnace, annealing furnace, etc.
C. Rotary kiln
S
d. Column roaster
G S
S
G
S
G
S
G
S
G
S
G
S, L
G
G
a.
Shaft furnace
S
G
b
G
G
S
S
S
G
e. Belt conveyor
G
f. Fluidized bed
Figure 4.16 Schematic presentations of reactors for G S system.
b. Indirectly heated furnace. The heat energy is transferred through the wall or solid
medium between the heat source and the materials. Examples include the coke
oven with external heater, muffle, tubular, crucible and retort furnace.
The principle of heat transfer is similar to that of mass transfer. The methods of
intensification presently used in the industries to enhance heat transfer processes are
similar to those of mass transfer considered in chapter 2. The overall heat transfer
equation for directly heated fuel fired furnace, with the heat transferred by heat carrier
can be in the simplified form represented as
Q FT ................................4.67
where Q quantity of heat transferred per unit time, T mean temperature difference
between the material and the heat carrier, F material surface area, - coefficient of heat
released, depends on the relative rate of mixing the heat carrier and material, their
density, viscosity, the coefficient of heat transfer, heat capacity, form and condition of
particles; surface, furnace construction, etc.
The mass and heat transfer rates can be intensified by:
a.
b.
Increasing the temperature driving force via counter current flow of material
and heat carrier.
c.
d.
e.
Q KFT ................................4.68
where K coefficient of heat transfer. In the general form
1
.................................4.69
1
1
1
2
1 coefficient of heat released from the heat carrier to the wall separating it from the
material, 2 coefficient of heat released from the wall to the material, - wall thickness,
- wall heat conductivity.
Like the directly heated furnace, increase in the value of T for indirectly heated furnace
can be achieved by.
i. Increasing the temperature of the heat carrier.
ii.
Increasing the conductivity coefficient of the dividing wall via better selection of
the construction material.
iii.
Nu A. Re m Pr n G
p
.4.70
where Nu al/ the Nusselt criteria, Re = wl/ the Reynold number, Pr = /a the Prandlt
criteria, G = L1/L2 geometrical simplex characterising the influence of geometrical
parameters on a. L1/L2 dimension of heat transfer surface(dimension of the reactor, heat
exchanger tubes, packings, etc.). - coefficient of temperature conductivity, w velocity
of gas or liquid relative to the heat transfer surface, - kinematic viscosity, a - /Cp coefficient of temperature conductivity, Cp specific heat capacity at constant pressure,
- density of the gas or liquid. The coefficients A and exponents m, n, p are determined
experimentally and are available in chemical handbooks.
3.
b.
c.
d.
e.
4.
Kinetic equation, based on the reaction rate at the solid particle surface.
b.
c.
d.
Temperature distribution.
e.
In general furnaces are constructed to enhance mixing or increased contact surface area
(Table 4.6).
Type of process
Shaft
Blast.
Calcinator.
Dissociation of carbonante.
Hydrodynamic
and heat regime
Approximated
plug flow
pattern.
Polythermal
Burning of
powdery material
introduced by
spraying/injection
.
Dryer
Drying of material
Fluidized
Roaster
Low temperature
Same as shaft
Approximated
well mixed.
Isothermal
Carbonisation
Regenerator
Dryer
Drying of granules.
Gas generator
Cracking
Rotary
Same as shaft
Cement kiln
Production of cement.
Sintering
Calcinator
Reduction of sulphates
Production of
Na2S, BaS, etc.
Dryer
Tunnel
Same as rotary
Roaster
Pyrolysis
Smelting
Dryer
Chamber
For firing of
ceramic product
Firing of glass.
Ring or annular
Muffle
Rotor
Approximated
ideal plug flow.
Polythermal
Low temperature
gasification
Dryer
Bath
Annealing
Converter,
crucible, pot
Cyclone
Sintering
Flaring
Burning of fuel
Various regime
Approximated
well mixed.
Isothermal
Tubular
Pyrolysis
Electric
Arc: Indirect
heating
Direct heating
Various regime
Resistance:
Indirect heating
Direct heating
Combined
heating method
Induction
S
S
Characteristic
High intensity,
moderate energy
consumption.
Simple to
construct. It could
be periodic but it
is easy to control
Well mixed, co or
counter current.
Mixing, extraction,
polymerisation,
leaching processes
High productivity
but high energy
consumption. Easy
to control, not
always reliable
and difficult to
maintain.
S
L
Fluidized
b ed
a. Normal
b.
Fountain
Mixing regime
Flow pattern and
example
Plug flow, counter
current.
Adsorption, ion
exchange, leaching
processes
L
L
L
S
S
L
L
With
mixer
a.
Mechanic
al
L
S
Product
b.
Pneumatic
Air Air
L, S
Average
productivity,
periodic, simple to
construct and
reliable
Low productivity.
High energy
consumption.
Difficult to
construct.
Low productivity,
high energy
consumption.
Difficult to
construct,
continuous
operation.
Product
c. Mixing
in column
Product
d. Screw
L, S
Product
Multiple
with
possible
combinati
on of
mixing
devices
L
Counter current.
High productivity,
Adsorption, ion
capital intensive,
exchange, leaching continuous
operation
L
L
L
Reactors with filter bed may be cylindrical in shape with the grids placed at the lower
part in the reaction zone. On the grids are porous solid granules or particles of the
adsorbent. The liquid is filtered through this layer of solid material. The internal surface
area of the solid material is determined by its porosity. Reaction in filter bed is limited by
internal diffusion. The rate and the direction of the liquid flow depend on the height of
the filter bed and granules sizes. In most cases the liquid stream flows top down. Filter
bed reactors are used in adsorption, ion exchange, leaching processes, etc.
Multiple filter bed reactors are widely used in leaching and ion exchange processes. The
depleted solution is removed at the last reactor along the liquid flow direction as fresh
ones are poured into the first. The used solid reactant is discharged at interval and fresh
ones introduced. Reactors with continuous regime in which the solid solute particles are
suspended in the liquid phase are also used in the adsorption and ion exchange processes.
These reactors are very effective when the difference in densities of the liquid solvent and
the solid solute is high, the later having large surface area.
For system with insignificant difference in densities and small size granules, the fountain
reactors are more feasible (Table 4.7b). Fountain reactors are used for polydispersed solid
materials and where the use of grid is not advisable due to the aggressiveness of the
medium. Velocity of flow in fountain reactor (cm/s) far exceed that of suspended or
fluidised bed (mm/s), consequently the former is more efficient. One of the construction
peculiarity of the fountain reactor is that the diameter of the lower part of the reactor da
(Table 4.7b), must be smaller than that of the communication tube dT (da dT) to ensure
the formation of a stable fountain. At the same time the fluid velocity wf must be lower
than that necessary to suspended the particles wp to avoid the removal of the later from
the reaction zone.
During ion exchange process in fountain reactor, the liquid is passed through the reactor
from the bottom up until the solute (ionate) is saturated with the cation of the non-ferrous
metal in the solvent. Regeneration of the solid is performed in the same sequence using
the regenerating solvent to obtain a concentrate of the non-ferrous metal solution.
REACTORS WITH MECHANICAL AND PNEUMATIC MIXING DEVICES
The impeller-anchor or agitator mixers are commonly used for L-S processes such as
extraction, dissolution, leaching, polymerisation, and organic and inorganic syntheses.
For liquid with average viscosity the impeller-agitator could be used, while the anchorimpellers are more appropriate for high viscosity systems (Figure 4.21). The anchor
impeller can withstand intensive mechanical loading and has low hydrodynamic
resistance. The outer part of the impeller should be quite close to the reactors wall to
avoid the formation of crust on its surface.
Screw mixer (conveyor) consists of a rotating shaft on which are welded spirally metallic
or plastic blades. Materials are fed into the mixer via the loading zone and discharged at
the other end. Reactors with screw mixer may be equipped with heat exchangers to
regulate the rate of chemical reactions (Table 4.7e).
Reactant
Mixer
Gaseous product
Steam
Steam
Water
Water
Product
Figure 4.21 Reactor with anchor-impeller.
Packed bed or column reactors with counter current flow pattern (more viscous flowing
up down, while the lighter fluid down up) are used for liquid extraction processes. In
most chemico-technological processes more than two phases are involved. Examples
include the production of steel involving the solid, liquid and gaseous phases. The rate of
multiple phase system is determined by that of the slowest reaction involving any of the
phases.
REACTORS FOR CATALYZED REACTIONS
Q11-12. What is unique in the design of reactors for catalytic process. Will you
recommend a fluidized bed reactor for catalytic processes.
Reactors for heterogeneous phase catalysis especially the contact reactors must:
Simple to construct.
Homogeneous phase catalyzed reactions are easily conducted in contact reactors like the
capacity-type, column and tubular reactors, heat exchanger, etc. For example dehydration
of acetic acid in vapour state using triethylphosphate (gas) as catalyst is conducted in
tubular reactor. The heat required for the reaction is supplied by the flue gases circulating
in the inter tubular space. Liquid phase catalyzed reactions are conducted in reactors
equipped with mixing devices.
Construction of reactors for catalyzed processes depends on the phases of the catalyst and
reactants. Heterogeneous catalyzed reactions can occur in the gaseous phase using solid
or liquid catalyst. Most industrial catalyzed processes occur in the gaseous phase on solid
catalyst.
Catalyzed reactions are classified into isothermal, adiabatic and polythermal, depending
on the temperature regime. Using the extent of mixing, catalyzed reactions are classified
into:
1. Ideal plug flow, well mixed and partially mixed.
2. Suspended or fluidized catalyst layer.
3. Mobile catalyst stream flowing between the reaction compartment and the
regenerator.
REACTORS WITH FILTER BED CATALYST
The catalyst is placed on stationary column or inside the tube. The reactant is passed
through the catalyst layer, in a regime close to ideal plug flow. The higher the
height/depth of the catalyst layer the lesser its activeness and probability of the gases
mixing along the reactors length/height. Catalyst used in filter bed can be in form of
different size particles/grain/tablet/granule of 4 5mm in cross section; smaller size
particles increase the hydraulic resistance of the system and are easily sintered during
firing. The quantity of catalyst on the bed and number of column and their positioning are
dependent on the catalyst activeness, condition of heat transfer and type of reaction. The
higher the activeness, rate of reaction and equilibrium product output the smaller the
quantity of the required contact mass.
The method of heating or choice of heat exchanger determines the construction of filter
bed contact reactor. In endothermic reactions, it is easy to regulate heat supplied to the
catalyst bed. More difficult to control is the temperature regime in reversible exothermic
reactions as it is necessary to regulate the heat supplied to or removed from the reaction
zones.
Filter bed catalyst reactors have the following disadvantages:
Porous catalyst grains are poor heat conductors. This makes it very difficult to
guarantee uniform distribution of heat/temperature along the reactors height.
The only available method of heat transfer process is to place the heat
exchanger inside the catalyst layer. Even this method should be applied
carefully as the catalyst can easily be deactivated due to drastic fall in
temperature around the heat exchanger (attributable to the poor conductive
properties of porous catalyst grains).
Poor conducting properties of the porous catalyst filter bed makes it difficult
to regulate and maintain optimum temperature regime. For example in
exothermic reactions, with increasing contact time the mass temperature
increases steadily (Figure 69, 70). This deactivates the contact mass and
reduces the productivity.
Inlet
Water
(Heat carrier)
.
.
Water
Product
Refractory lining
Product
Figure 5.6 Filter bed catalyst reactor
Containing very active catalyst.
The quantity of catalyst used is determined by its activeness. For catalyst with low
activeness the height of the catalyst layer could be in metres. In exothermic processes the
temperature of the reacting gases on the catalyst surface increases proportionally with the
extent of reaction x.
Filter bed catalyst reactors are usually fitted with heat exchangers to maintain optimum
operating temperature. There are various ways of regulating heat of reaction
(temperature) in the catalyst bed. The heat supply and removal techniques used during
construction of reactors are similar for both exothermic and endothermic reactions. The
reactors are classified into the following groups.
These are sub divided depending on the position of the heat exchanger into
a. Reactors with heat exchanger between two reactors.
b. Heat exchanger is placed between the reactants layer in the column
*
Heat exchangers
a
c
Reactant
Product
Figure 5.9 Schematic diagram of multiple reactors with external heat exchangers
The product output in each contact column 1, 2 and 3 decreases with the contact time
(x1 > x2 > x3, Figure 5.10). Consequently the reaction heat effect and the quantity of
heat removed after each column in the exchangers decreases. Therefore the quantity of
catalyst in each column 1, 2 and 3 increases steadily the further it is from the inlet; this
increase the contact time between the reactant and the catalyst. However the extent of
reaction steadily decreases according to the law of active mass. Cooling of the reacting
mixture in the exchangers a, b and c are indicated on Figure 5.10 by the horizontal lines
a, b and c.
CONTACT REACTORS WITH HEAT EXCHANGERS PLACED IN THE
COLUMN
In these reactors the heat exchangers are embedded inside the reaction chamber (Figure
5.11). Heating or cooling of the reacting mixture takes place in the column using the heat
carrier or coolant passing through the tubular space of the exchanger. The heat exchanger
is positioned above the grid and between the columns. The height of the catalyst bed in
each column decreases upward as the extent of reaction and consequently the heat
released decrease downward.
Processes in this contact reactor can also be represented as in Figure 5.11. In the columns,
reactions take place in adiabatic condition using the heat of reaction as heat source.
Cooling of the reacting mixture is made possible using the coolant flowing in the
exchanger or fresh reactants in counter current flow to reaction products.
Catalyst layer
Heat exchanger
Catalyst layer
Reactant
Product
Figure 5.11 Contact reactor with the heat exchanger embedded in the reaction chamber
Heat carrier
Heat carrier
Product
Figure 5.12 Tubular contact reactor
Tubular contact reactors are sometimes built in form of tubular heat exchangers placed
inside a container (Figure 5.12) or as furnace with the tubes containing the catalyst
positioned inside. Example of endothermic process conducted in tubular contact reactor
includes dehydrogenation of butane. For exothermic reactions the heat carrier is passed
either through the catalyst tubes or between the tubes. The heat transfer process is
between the catalyst and the cold, fresh reacting mixture.
Various heat transfer techniques are now used in the construction of contact reactors. For
example in tubular column-contact reactor, the catalyst could be positioned in columns
and tubes arranged above the grid. Reactors with combined heat transfer techniques
operate very close to the optimum temperature regime and are preferred to the fluidized
bed reactors.
CONTACT REACTORS WITH FLUIDIZED OR SUSPENDED CATALYST
LAYER (FLUIDIZED BED REACTORS)
Fluidized bed has many advantages compared to filter contact catalyst bed. Catalyst
grains of 0.1 2mm in diameter can be used and it has better heat conductivity thus
minimizing possibility of smelting. The particles are suspended by the gaseous or liquid
reactant passed through the grid bottom-up at a velocity enough to move the particles and
the entire catalyst mass from stationary to fluidized state (critical velocity). In suspension,
the catalyst grains can move in all direction thus enhancing diffusion of reactants
molecules into its pores. The hydrodynamic regime in the fluidized catalyst bed is close
to well mixed with isothermal temperature regime.
The schematic diagram of contact reactor with fluidized catalyst layer for exothermic
processes is presented in Figure 5.13. The reactor may have more than one grid or
column evenly distributed along the reaction chamber. The reactant is passed bottom up
while the product is collected from the upper segment. In most design the upper segment
is larger in diameter than the lower.
Product
Fluidized
catalyzed bed
Heat
carrier
Reactant
Figure 5.13 Multiple column fluidized bed reactor
This difference in diameter helps to reduce the velocity of the outgoing product/mixture
and thus enhance the sedimentation of the catalyst particles. The heat of reaction is
removed by the heat exchangers positioned in the reaction chambers; above each column.
As the catalyst particles are not in permanent contact with the exchangers surface, the
disadvantages associated with contact reactors are minimized and the heat transfer is
high. In construction, heat exchangers used in fluidized/suspended catalyst bed are much
simpler than those of filter bed; does not require complex internal and external
intermediate exchangers and are smaller in surface area.
Heat is easily transferred by convection in fluidized bed as a result of the continuous
movement of the contact mass. Consequently it is easy to maintain the required
temperature (isothermal) in the reaction chamber. The coefficient of heat transfer in it is
greater than that of the filter. Therefore the probability of catalyst deactivation due to
intensive heat removal or overheating as a result of high initial reactant concentration is
minimal. The above factor also eliminates the necessity of preheating the initial reactant
to the activation temperature Ta as it can be easily heated; compliment of the high heat
conductivity of the system. In the first (lower) column the temperature is maintained by
regulating the heat content of the initial reactant. Heat exchanger may not be necessary in
this column.
Contact reactor with fluidized bed has high productivity due to:
The small catalyst particle sizes. This enhances complete utilization of the
internal surface area and
The main disadvantages of fluidized bed when compared to the filter bed are:
It has very small driving force due to the effective mixing of the reactant. The
decrease in driving force is proportional to the extent of reaction. Utilization
of multiple columns minimizes this effect and makes it possible to operate at
close to optimum temperature.
catalyst bed
Regenerated catalyst
returned
Reactant
Heat
carrier
Figure 5.15 Schematic diagram of contact reactor with mobile catalyst
In the former the velocity of the gas flow is very high and the particles are removed from
the reaction chamber. The catalyst is then separated from the gaseous mixture in cyclone
and sent to the regenerator, where in fluidized condition the hydrocarbon deposit on its
surface is burnt off. The regenerated hot catalyst along with the gaseous reactant is
returned to the reaction chamber. The major disadvantage of mobile catalyst contact
reactor is the incomplete separation of the catalyst from the gas stream. A lot of attention
is given to purification process thus increasing the cost of production.
The use of all information on the physics, chemistry and the basics sciences in resolving
the effects of expected forces or reactions to determine the outward physical
manifestation of a product. The extent an equilibrium is achieved will determine the cost,
functionability, survivability, reliability, constructability or manufacturability of
the equipment.
A mechanical design can be aided with the use of software tools to create
elegant outward geometrical forms. It is important that selection of any
software must be based on understanding of the theorems of the equipment
to be designed.
xeq
= 2C, without volume change
k eq
k eq 2
.
For some reactions coefficients accounting for volume change are introduced to
the ideal equation. In the absence of textbook xeq, equilibrium constant values for
various temperatures can be calculated using eq. 53 57 in chapter 2. The
T
eq
T
op
2.3RT
eq E mq
1
lg
mq
E
Where T temperature, K, R gas constant, 8.31kJ/(mol.K), m coefficient
representing the stoichiometry of the major component when 1M of the desired
product is produced., q heat of reaction, kJ/mol, E activation energy, kJ/mol.
Optimum temperature may be calculated using the extent of reaction.
2.
The material balance for the entire reactor or when necessary for each column is
calculated according to chapter one and the x = f(T) diagram. From the material
balance the gas volumetric flow rate V, m3/s and extent of reaction are calculated.
3.
Contact time t, is calculated using the process rate eq. 94 108, chapter 2 and or
for kinetic controlled ideal plug flow reactor eq. 17 23 chapter 3. For first order
t
reaction
1
1
In
k 1 x
v Vt
.
The assumed contact time wf, hr-1 or s-1
V
w
a v
The loading coefficient = 1.3 2.5. It is obtained from practical experience. The
loading coefficient varies with the type of reaction, catalyst used and position of
the reactor or column. also considers the influence of internal and external
diffusions, expected change in catalyst activeness with time and decrease in
process driving force due to mixing. Therefore in practice the assumed contact
time wa do differ from t.
5.
The heat balance should be calculated varying the heat exchanger surface area and
temperature until the optimum technological regime is attained.
6.
V
w
a
wa assumed contact time in the layer. The actual contact time wf must ensure
adequate mass and heat transfer between the catalyst and gas, and guarantee
satisfactory hydraulic condition.
w w
f
a
where - porosity of the catalyst layer. It is equal to the ratio of the free grain
volume to the overall volume of the layer.
7.
F
4V
A D 2 w
a
8. Hydraulic resistance
P P P P ....
c
g
l
s
P
c
3
w2
g f
H
2g
3.7 Re 0.35
, where Re
2
3
The first step in physical and mathematical modeling is to find out the
mathematical functional relation between rate of reaction u or rate
constant k or product output and other technological parameters. The
rate of chemical reaction is mainly dependent on the concentration of
the reactants and products C1, C2, C3; coefficients of effective diffusivity
of components D1, D2, D3; temperature in the reaction medium T and
pressure P; extent of mixing of reactants (phases) this is dependent
on the relative velocity of the phases wg, wl, ws; catalyst activeness Ac;
density of reactants g, l, s; viscosity coefficient dynamic or
kinematic ; surface tension ; geometrical characteristics of the
reactor, height H, diameter D, etc.
Q17 Example of design from experimental data. Will you recommend a theoretical
approach to this experimental method?
DESIGN OF ESSENTIAL OIL PILOT PLANT
Odigure J. O., Okonkwo E. M., Williams I. S. et.al. J. Scientific & Industrial Research.
India, vol. 65, Nov. 2006, pp. 912-915. ( In collaboration with National Research Institute
for Chemical Technology Zaria and Raw Materials Research and Development Council,
Abuja)
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The numerous economic incentives of the Federal Government of Nigeria aimed at
facilitating rapid industrial growth of the nation, are added advantages to investors in the
ESSENTIAL OILS production sector. There is an overwhelming need and market for the
product. Essential oils are indispensable in any perfume, beverages, cosmetics, soap,
foods, and pharmaceuticals industries.
They are found in various parts of plants such as the fruits, flowers, leaves, seeds, stems,
barks, woods, roots, or the whole plant. Essential oils bearing plants are readily available
in all geographical zones of our country. Various technology have been developed for
essential oils production, however the technology of steam distillation or better put, the
use of steam as heat carrier have gained wide application.
To a large extent the development of the essential oil sector in the country has been very
slow either due to lack of proper technological know-how or non-availability of local
processing equipment. Therefore the major objective of this design is to develop a cost
effective, environmentally friendly process that takes into consideration the technological
development of our economy and market structure.
A packed bed steam extraction tank still equipped with a condensing unit has been
designed. The expected productivity is (0.864x4x200) = 691.2m3 per year. Analysis of the
designed process shows that it is suitable for local cottage industry.
PROCESS DESIGN
INTRODUCTION
Essential oils are sometimes called volatile Oils or Ethereal Oils; the term essential is
derived from essence and has no connotation of need. Essential Oils are mostly
volatile in steam and generally are mixture of a variety of chemical low carbon
hydrocarbon compounds, together with their oxygenated derivatives such as alcohols,
esters, aldehyde, ketones, ether and acids. They are found in various parts of plants such
as the fruits, flowers, leaves, seeds, stems, barks, woods, roots, or the whole plant.
Essential oils are indispensable in any perfume, beverages, cosmetics, soap, foods, and
pharmaceuticals industries. Presently, almost all the essential oils used in the country are
imported and the demand for the products is increasing rapidly with serious consequence
on the meager foreign reserve.
Essential oils bearing plants are readily available in all geographical zones of our country
most especially the Eucalyptus. It grows well in area threatened by desertification and
therefore its massive cultivation will tremendously help in solving the ugly problem.
However lack of proper know-how and processing equipment has frustrated local
production.
Various technology have been developed for essential oils production, however the
technology of steam distillation or better put, the use of steam as heat carrier have
gained wide application. This will be adopted in this project.
Essential oils to a large extent are practically insoluble in water and reasonable stable to
action of heat. Unfortunately most parameters required for proper design are not readily
available. Consequently, it was essential to experimentally determine them.
Comprehensive experiments on characterization of the technological parameters and
crude obtained were performed in laboratory condition. The results are presented below.
PROJECT OBJECTIVE
The main objective is conceptualize, design, construct and test run a pilot plant for the
production of 8.64x10-1m3/hr or 2.4x10-7m3/s (864l/hr or 0.738kg/hr) of essential oils
from locally sourced plants using Eucalyptus leaves as a case study with steam as the
carrier medium. It is expected that the fabricated pilot plant will be simple and cheap to
enhance the local development of essential oils cottage industries in the country.
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
The results of various experiments aimed at finding optimum technological condition for
the production of essential oil from Eucalyptus leaves are presented Figures 1 14.
0
10
20
30
40
50
Time, min
60
70
80
90
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Time, min
In all the Figures 1 14 there are time lags. This is the period the introduced steam is
utilized to heat up the reactor and the content. The period is dependent on the rate of
steam supply and leaves weight. It is generally between 16 21min. for moderate heating
and 12 18min for fast. However fast heating may not yield greater oil. The moderate
heating regime seems to give the best oil production with maximum oil output of 3.0x10 2
ml/g. Calculations of the gradient of Fig. 5 and 6 revealed the steam utilization (steam
required to transport the oil) and oil production rates are 9.33x10 -4ml/s and 9.42x10-6 ml/s.
per gram leave. This gives a steam : oil ratio of 100:1. Analysis shows that the rate at
which steam passes through the leaves bed may deviate from linear relationship to curve
depending on the loading capacity.
Comparative analyses of the figures are presented in Figures 15 and 16. They clearly
confirm the chosen steam oil ratio. They showed that maximum oil could be obtained at
an optimum steam leave ratio. High steam supply does not necessarily enhance the rate
of oil removal from the system. The Figures also show that maximum oil removal is
independent on the heating regime. It is a function of the steam flow rate and leaves
packing density.
Process technology
Several process technologies for the development of essential oils have been developed.
In all cases the action of heat and moisture is used to breakdown the cell tissues of plant
and liberate the essential oil.
In this project the steam distillation technique has been adopted because of the efficiency.
In this technology steam obtained via distillation of water is passed through packed bed
of plant materials. The emerging steam-oil vapour mixture is led to the condenser for
condensation. The condensate is collected and allowed to separate into water and oil
layer. The crude oils is collected and dewatered before storage.
The process technology therefore consists of the tank still or reactor, the condenser and
separator (Figure 17). The steam required for the process shall be obtained for a steam
generator or water distillation equipment.
Oil
Steam/
Tank still
(At steady state)oil
Condenser
Separator
Water
Steam
Oil
Tank still
Leaves(At unsteady state)
Spent leaves
Steam
Condensate
Figure 17 Schematic diagrams for the production of essential Oils.
DESIGN CONDITIONS
The technological conditions used for the design are to a large extent determined
experimentally. They are summarized as follow:
Optimum steam:Oil ratio per gram leave
9.33x10-4:9.42x10-6 (ml/s)
9.33x10-4ml/s
50-60min.
853.8kg/m3
853.96kg/m3
6.92x10-4Ns/m2
4.0kJ/kg.oC
0.69W/moC
995kg/m3
Density of steam
Viscosity of water w
8.0x10-4Ns/m2
25oC
50oC
Condensate temperature
40oC
Steam temperature
100oC
Operating pressure
atmospheric
Productivity
8.64x10-4m3/hr
Density of leave
1800 kg/m3
310 kg/m3
MATERIAL BALANCE
Based on the defined process productivity the material balance was performed starting
from the separating unit.
Separator unit
The material balance over the separator is as presented in Figure 18
Oil 2.4x10-7m3/s
Or 2.05x10-4kg/s
Water oil mixture
Separator
2.424x10-5m3/s
or 0.020705kg/s
Water 2.4x10-5m3/s
or 0.0205kg/s
5.8x10-6m3/s Coolant in
0.057kg/s
Figure 19 Condenser unit material balance
From the experimental results the maximum mass of oil that can be removed from the
leaves per gram is 3x10-2ml/s. At a production rate of 2.4x10-4m3/s or 0.864m3/hr per
batch cycle of maximum 1hr.
The quantity of leaves required therefore can be determined as
1kg leaves will give a maximum of 3.0x10-2m3 crude oil
x leaves will be required to produce 0,864m3 oil
x
0.864
3.0 x10 2
= 28.8kg leaves
The quantity of steam required = mass flow rate of the steam x induction time
Experimentally the maximum induction period is 21min. however 25min will be
considered for this project. 0.0205x25x60 = 30.75kg
Theoretically the condensate flow rate is the same as the steam. Allowing for film
condensate on the leaves surfaces of 10%, the condensate flow rate is assumed as
0.01845kg/s
For the unsteady state, the material balance is represented below (Figure.20)
Condensate 0.00205kg/s
Tank still
At unsteady state
Leaves
28.8kg/hr
Steam
Condensate
-5 3
2.4x10 m /s
30.75kg
0.0205kg/s
0.01845kg/s
Figure 20 Material balance at unsteady state
At steady state a steam-oil mixture is formed with the outgoing steam (Figure 21).
Steam-oil mixture
2.424x10-5m3/s (0.020705kg/s)
Tank still
Steam
2.4x10-5m3/s
0.0205kg/s
Figure 21 Material balance at steady state
The material balance of the packed bed indicated that the mass of leaves required for the
production is 28.8kg. The density of the fresh leaves is about 1800kg/m3. The observed
bulk density for the optimum sample was 310kg/m3
Therefore the volume of the packed bed using the bulk density V = 28.8/310 =0.093m3.
For a cylindrical shaped vessel
V = 0.093 = 0.785D2H
For this design a height to diameter ratio H:D =1.3 was chosen.
Therefore V = 0.093 = 0.785D2(1.3D) = 1.021D3
D = 0.45m
H = 0.585m
ENERGY BALANCE
At unsteady state the packed leaves bed could be likened to plug flow system in which
the fluid (steam) at 100oC flows into it, loses the heat to the bed (Figure 22). The heat
lose by the steam will continue until a steady state is reached at which the temperature of
the bed is equal to that of the team
Condensate 0.00205kg/s
Leaves
28.8kg/hr
Tank still
At unsteady state
Steam
2.4x10-5m3/s
0.0205kg/s
Condensate
30.75kg
0.01845kg/s
Available heat
38.2MJ/m3
Density, kg/m3
1.006
Required quantity,
1.3 x10-5m3/s or 0.013l/s
Natural gas
37.3MJ/m3
876
Coke
21.1MJ/kg
1280
2.4 x10-5kg/s
Lignite (wood)
23.2MJ/kg
720
2.2 x10-5kg/s
Coal
30.2MJ/kg
800
1.7 x10-5kg/s
Comparatively it is better to use fuel sources with high heat content. However choice of
fuel source is mainly determined by availability and cost. This varies with locations.
Heat received by the tank still and the contents
The condensing steam loses it heat and is removed from the system at 100oC.
Heat adsorbed by the system Qrecieved = heat content of the oil, Spent leaves, condensate
removed from the reactor with marginally fall in temperature , condensate on leaves
surface, heat of vaporization of condensate and construction material Qoil + Qsl + Qc +
Qcls Qcv + Qcm respectively.
Heat acquired by oil
Qoil = moilcToil
where moil 2.05x10-4kg/s, c = 2.6x10-3 J/kg.K, Toil - 100-25 = 75o.
Qoil = 4.0x10-3kJ/s
temperature difference
At equilibrium
Qsupplied = Qrecieved + KFTcm
kFTcm = 463.3 412.17 = 51.13kJ/s
DESIGN OF THE TANK STILL
Qcm = 4.83kJ/s = KFTcm
Where K is the overall heat transfer coefficient. It is a function of the tank still
construction material aluminum and insulator (fiber with binder and baked)
K = 1/(/ + 1/1) =
Where - insulator thickness 20mm, - heat transfer coefficient of insulator 5.5 kW/mK,
- heat transfer coefficient of aluminum 0.2059 kW/mK
= 0.44m
= 0.010mm
= 45o
= 360/45
=8
= 8x.585
= 4.68m
= 6.9m
= 3.52m
= 15.1m
by the formula. The bed was considered as fairly incompressible based on experimental
observations. However corrective coefficient will be introduced to account for possible
compression of the leaves bed.
P = [2mG2L(1 - )3-n]/[Dpgcs3-n3]
where P pressure drop, Pa,
L depth of packed bed, m = 0.585m
gc dimensionless constant
Dp average particle diameter, defined as the diameter of a sphere of the same volume as
the particle. Average volume of a leaf branch 1.5x10 -3m3. Volume of a sphere =
4r3/3. Dp = 0.142m
- voidage (fractional free volume) = Volume of leaves/ volume of bed zone = (mass of
leaves/leaves density)/ volume of bed zone = (28.8/1800)/0.093 = 0.170
n exponent, a function of the modified Reynolds number N Re. NRe = DpG/ =
0.142x0.0205/8x10-4 = 3.64. From the Chart n = 1.
s shape factor of the solid, defined as the quotient of the area of a sphere equivalent to
the volume of the particle divided by the actual surface of the particle
= 1.5x10-3/0.785x0.1422 = 0.9375
G fluid mass velocity based on empty chamber cross section. 0.0205kg/s.
- fluid density, - 995 kg/m3
m
The observed insignificant pressure drop is expected considering that the process takes
place at atmospheric condition.
Using the velocity-head concept and approximate velocity drop can be obtained
P = h 50(v2/2gc)
0.01309gc = 50(v2/2gc)
5.236x10-4 = v2
v = 0.02288kg/s - mass velocity
This implies that the actual mass velocity of steam from the generator to the tank still
should be maximum 0.205 + 0.02288 = 0.0538kg/s
CONDENSER DESIGN
Essential oils are generally corrosive and is therefore assigned to the tube side.
Heat capacity of the steam-essential oil mixture = 4000.0kJ/kg.oC.
Heat load Q = mmcT = 0.020705x 4000x(100-40) = 4970kJ/s
Heat capacity of water = 4.2kJ/kg oC
Cooling water mass flow rate Gw = Q/cT = 4970/(4200x(50-25) = 0.047kg/s
The mean log temperature change
T = [(100-40) (50-25)]/In[(100-40)/(50-25)] = 40oC.
Calculate the dimensionless temperature ratio for a one pass and two tubes passes.
R = (100 40)/(50 25) = 2.4
S = (50 25)/(100 40) = 0.33
From the temperature correlation factor graph Ft = 0.85
Therefore Tm = 0.85x40 = 34oC.
From the correlation Table of hot fluid versus cold fluid the overall heat transfer
coefficient U was taken as 300W/m2.oC.
Therefore the provisional area Ap = 4970/(300x34) = 0.49m2
From standard a 16mm internal diameter (d i), 20mm outer diameter (do) and 0.55m tube
length (L) made from aluminum was chosen.
Allowing for welding L was taken as 0.51m.
Area of 1 tube
A = circumference x L = 2.0x10-2 x0.51 = 0.032m2
Number of tubes Nt = Ap/A = 0.49/0.032 = 15.29
The estimated shell diameter Dh = do(Nt/k1)0.453
Where k1 constant = 0.215 using a square pitch tubes arrangement
Dh = 0.02(15/0.215)0.453 =137mm
A bundle clearance of 13mm will be allowed
Therefore the shell diameter ds = 137 + 13 = 150mm
Condenser unit
1500
48
1650
585
A
B
750
550
170
550
Steam from generator
170
A-A
Total length = 15100x10
20, 16 tubes
of bars at 45o
-B
Figure 23 Mechanical drawings of the process line with steam supplied from a generator
(Scale 1 in to 375mm)
Condenser unit
1500
48
585
1650
750
550
- -------------------
170
A-A
A_A
Total length = 15100x10
20, 16 tubes
B-B
Figure 24 Mechanical drawings of the process line with direct heating of water in the still
tank (Scale 1 in to 375mm)
ELECTRICAL DESIGN/INSTRUMENTATION
The main aim of process instrumentation and automation is to ensure process stability at
optimum technological condition, high productivity at minimum energy utilization and
process safety. The functional schematic diagram of the design process is presented in
Figure 25.
THE TANK STILL
Analysis of the proposed production technology shows that for efficient operation of this
unit the automation process must guarantee the designed temperature and steam flow rate
regimes. Temperature and flow rate (pressure gauge) sensors are installed before and after
the packed bed. The automation involves regulation of the steam flow rate and
stabilization of the temperature regime. The steam flow rate is monitored either manually
or with the aid of digital pressure gauge. The signal is sent to the control board from
where secondary signal is sent to the regulatory mechanism to allow more or reduce the
flow from the steam generator. The same procedure is applied for the temperature sensor
(digital thermometer or visual observation). A signal from the control board is sent to the
regulatory mechanism to maintain the required steam temperature.
THE CONDENSER
F
The regulated parameters
are the temperature of the coolant. Increase in the temperature
of the outlet water mean increased temperature of the crude condensate. The installed
temperature gauge will send signal to the control board Tfor increase in the coolant flow
rate. The functioning of the condenser, tank still and steam generator is synchronized.
TE
When the tank still is open no steam will be sent to it and water to the condenser will
stop. The devices will stop functioning.
T
PE
TI
PQI
TR
Pf
TI
PQI
TR
TI
PE
TR
PQI
Figure 26 An Essential Oil Production Plant fabricated using the above design (National
Research Institute for Chemical Technology, Zaria, Nigeria
REFERENCES
1
Perry R.H. and D.W. Green Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, 7th edition,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1997
of
equipment
The risk analyses are normally considered for each unit individually. It
could following the following methodology; starts from the
Design concept;
Systematic design appraisal and review of the conceptual and then the
detailed technical drawings, feasibility and environmental impact
assessment reports,
List of top hazard at the various subunits and units using any risk analysis
technique to establish,
Estimate the probability of occurrence of the top event/hazard
Assess the viability of the design units using:
a The existing rules and regulations,
b Operating standards and codes, and
c Documented historical records of possible event occurrence.
Feed back the obtain results for design improvement and optimization of
the process.
Evaluation and reliability of the units and system;
Assess the overall technical, economic and social safety of the plant.
The subunits or units that fall below or equal to the accept probability
of occurrence are accepted as having passed. In case of the units with
probabilities higher than the set standard there will be need to re
design the process or introduce mitigating features like temperature
control sensors, pressure release valves, level gauges, etc. The
survivability of the plant is based on the total probability of the units
and extent of accidental event harmful consequences. Survivability is
about predicting the impact of any accidental event on the operating
personnel or community or environment and is often quantified in
terms of the economic implication.
All industrial processes are potential environmental sources of pollution
as they by their activities release pollutants to the atmosphere; hence
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Geomet Unit
ry,
M2
Rotary
dryer,
indirect heating
26.7
Metering machine
Cyclone
heat
exchangers
7.56
2.25
1.42
0.62
Bucket elevator
25m
Screw conveyor
< 10m
Pipes, m
0.365
0.44
0.351
Rotary kiln
57
8
9
Gear motor, kW
Rotary pump
motor
10 Rotary cooler
11 Gear motor, kW
12 Rotary pump
motor
13 Dust collector
Refractory(+
0.02m
insulator),
kg
Productiv Material
ity
Of construction
x103
kg/hr
1
1
Insulator
64.8
25.2
1
1
1
1
1
1
5.54
0.5
14.3
1
2354.9
2246.1
1412.3
1026.3
73.9
73.9
28041
1
1
+
68.7
25.2
10
70.1
4910
25.2
15
Unit
Cost,
$x103
Total
Cost,
$x103
20
35
Asbestos, Fireclay, 50
low alloy iron wall. 35
28
30
6
Asbestos, Fireclay, 8
low alloy iron wall. 15
15
15
Asbestos, Fireclay,
low alloy iron wall. 40
8
6
50
35
28
30
6
8
83.1
7.5
214.5
Asbestos, Fireclay, 60
low alloy iron wall.
12
60
40
8
6
12
+
69
From
cooler:
cyclone
Venturi scrubber
Hydroclone
Exhaust pipe
Pump + gear motor,
kW
14 From Rotary dryer
Cyclone
Pump + gear motor,
kW
15 Tractor shovel
16 Tank trailer
0.785
0.049
0.785
13.36
6
6
6
1
30
0.785
10
30
192
16m3
1
1
1
45600
45600
45600
121600
4
4
3
33
24
24
18
33
76000
40
105HP
6
75
35.7
6
75
35.7
Total cost
910.8
Cost, $x103
1411.74
635.28
155.29
127.10
70.59
141.17
352.94
564.70
84.70
3543.51
531.53
177.18
354.35
4606.57
Qualification
Experience, Annual
years
Salary ($)
General
manager
14
B.Eng
12
9000
Production
manger
12
B.Eng Chem.
Engr.
7000
Accountant
12
B.Sc
7000
Cashier
08
HND
7000
Technologis
t
09
B.Eng
12000
OND in
Mech./Electrical
Engr.
18000
Labourer
02
20
NA
40000
Security
10
Ex service
Drivers
03
10
TOTAL
Trade test
Technician
20000
3
30000
150000
= $368525.6
= $150000.00.
= 75000.000
(iv)
Capital charges = 15% fixed capital
(v)
Insurance = 1% fixed capital cost
(vi)
Land Tax rates = 2% fixed capital cost
TOTAL FIXED COST
= $690985.5
= $460657.00
= $921314.00
= $2666482.1
APC/APR
= (4056627.84)/( 181440T / year) = $22.36 per ton.
Selling Price.
This is a function of total production cost demand and market forces. The
distribution price of $35.00 per ton would be recommended as the initial price.
Annual product sales (APS)
= $35 x 181440 = $6350400.00
Annual profit before tax = APS APC
= $6,350,400.00 4,056,627.74 = $2293772.26
Profit after tax (40%) = 0.6x2293772.26 = $1376263.36.
Depreciation
Determining the depreciation rate by the straight line method was adopted:
d =
(V Vs) / n
Where d = Annual depreciation $ / year
V = Original value of the property at start of service life period, complete
installed and ready for use.
Vs = Salvage value of property at end of service life.
n = service life period.
Let Vs after 10 years be taken as 15% of FCI = $690985.5
Annual depreciation per year
= ($4606570 - 690985.5)/ 10Years = $391558.45
This is the minimum length of time required to recover the original capital
investment inform of cash flow based on the total income minus all cost except
depreciation.
PBP
=
(Fixed capital investment) / (Average profit / year +
depreciation / yr)
=
4606570 /($1376263.36 + $391558.45/ year )
=
2.61 years.
29.88%
Average