Professional Documents
Culture Documents
2 Applications
Methods
NDT methods may rely upon use of electromagnetic radiation, sound, and inherent properties of materials to examine samples. This includes some kinds of microscopy
to examine external surfaces in detail, although sample preparation techniques for metallography, optical microscopy and electron microscopy are generally destructive as the surfaces must be made smooth through polishing or the sample must be electron transparent in thickness. The inside of a sample can be examined with penetrating radiation, such as X-rays, neutrons or terahertz
radiation. Sound waves are utilized in the case of ultrasonic testing. Contrast between a defect and the bulk
of the sample may be enhanced for visual examination
by the unaided eye by using liquids to penetrate fatigue
cracks. One method (liquid penetrant testing) involves
using dyes, uorescent or non-uorescent, in uids for
non-magnetic materials, usually metals. Another commonly used NDT method used on ferrous materials involves the application of ne iron particles (either liquid
or dry dust) that are applied to a part while it is in an
externally magnetized state (magnetic-particle testing).
The particles will be attracted to leakage elds within the
test object, and form on the objects surface. Magnetic
particle testing can reveal surface & some sub-surface
3
1880 - 1920 The Oil and Whiting method of crack
detection[8] is used in the railroad industry to nd
cracks in heavy steel parts. (A part is soaked in
thinned oil, then painted with a white coating that
dries to a powder. Oil seeping out from cracks turns
the white powder brown, allowing the cracks to be
detected.) This was the precursor to modern liquid
penetrant tests.
An example of a 3D replicating technique. The exible highresolution replicas allow surfaces to be examined and measured
under laboratory conditions. A replica can be taken from all
solid materials.
Optical microscopy
Alternating
(ACFM)
current
eld
measurement
Computed radiography
Digital radiography (real-time)
Neutron Imaging
SCAR (Small Controlled Area Radiography)
X-ray computed tomography (CT)
Resonant Inspection
Resonant Acoustic Method (RAM) [14]
Scanning electron microscopy
Surface Temper Etch (Nital Etch)
Ultrasonic testing (UT)
ART (Acoustic Resonance Technology)
Angle beam testing
Electro Magnetic Acoustic Transducer
(EMAT) (non-contact)
Laser ultrasonics (LUT)
Internal rotary inspection system (IRIS) ultrasonics for tubes
Phased array ultrasonics
Thickness measurement
Time of ight diraction ultrasonics (TOFD)
Time of Flight Ultrasonic Determination of
3D Elastic Constants (TOF)
Vibration Analysis
Holographic interferometry
Bubble testing
5.3
Certication schemes
5.1
Denitions
The following denitions for qualication and certication are given in ISO 9712:[16]
Certication: Procedure, used by the certication
body to conrm that the qualication requirements
for a method, level and sector have been fullled,
leading to the issuing of a certicate.
Qualication: Demonstration of physical attributes, knowledge, skill, training and experience
required to properly perform NDT tasks.
In US standards and codes, while a very similar denition of qualication is included in ASNT SNT-TC-1A,
certication is simply dened as: Written testimony of
qualication.
In the aerospace sector, EN 4179:2009 contains the following denitions:[17]
Certication: Written statement by an employer
that an individual has met the applicable requirements of this standard.
Qualication: The skills, training, knowledge, examinations, experience and visual capability required for personnel to properly perform to a particular level.
5.2
Training
5
1. Employer Based Certication: Under this concept the employer compiles their own Written Practice. The written practice denes the responsibilities of each level of certication, as implemented
by the company, and describes the training, experience and examination requirements for each level
of certication. In industrial sectors the written
practices are usually based on recommended practice SNT-TC-1A of the American Society for Nondestructive Testing.[19] ANSI standard CP-189 outlines requirements for any written practice that conforms to the standard.[20] For aviation, space, and
defense (ASD) applications NAS 410 sets further
requirements for NDT personnel, and is published
by AIA - Aerospace Industries Association, which
is made up of US aerospace airframe and powerplant manufacturers. This is the basis document
for EN 4179[17] and other (USA) NIST-recognized
aerospace standards for the Qualication and Certication (employer-based) of Nondestructive Testing personnel. NAS 410 also sets the requirements
also for National NDT Boards, which allow and
proscribe personal certication schemes. NAS 410
allows ASNT Certication as a portion of the qualications needed for ASD certication.[21]
2. Personal Central Certication: The concept of
central certication is that an NDT operator can
obtain certication from a central certication authority, that is recognized by most employers, third
parties and/or government authorities. Industrial
standards for central certication schemes include
ISO 9712,[16] and ANSI/ASNT CP-106[22] (used
for the ASNT ACCP [23] scheme). Certication under these standards involves training, work experience under supervision and passing a written and
practical examination set up by the independent certication authority. EN 473[24] was another central certication scheme, very similar to ISO 9712,
which was withdrawn when CEN replaced it with
EN ISO 9712 in 2012.
In the United States employer based schemes are the
norm, however central certication schemes exist as well.
The most notable is ASNT Level III (established in 19761977), which is organized by the American Society for
Nondestructive Testing for Level 3 NDT personnel.[25]
NAVSEA 250-1500 is another US central certication
scheme, specically developed for use in the naval nuclear program.[26]
5.4
Levels of certication
Evaluation Determining if a aw is rejectable. For ex Level 1 are technicians qualied to perform only
ample, is porosity in a weld larger than acceptable
specic calibrations and tests under close superviby code?
sion and direction by higher level personnel. They
can only report test results. Normally they work fol- Defect A aw that is rejectable i.e. does not meet
lowing specic work instructions for testing proceacceptance criteria. Defects are generally removed
dures and rejection criteria.
or repaired.[34]
Level 2 are engineers or experienced technicians
who are able to set up and calibrate testing equipment, conduct the inspection according to codes and
standards (instead of following work instructions)
and compile work instructions for Level 1 technicians. They are also authorized to report, interpret,
evaluate and document testing results. They can also
supervise and train Level 1 technicians. In addition
to testing methods, they must be familiar with applicable codes and standards and have some knowledge
of the manufacture and service of tested products.
Level 3 are usually specialized engineers or very
experienced technicians. They can establish NDT
techniques and procedures and interpret codes and
standards. They also direct NDT laboratories and
have central role in personnel certication. They are
expected to have wider knowledge covering materials, fabrication and product technology.
7
be found in ASTM E2862 Standard Practice for Probability of Detection Analysis for Hit/Miss Data and MILHDBK-1823A Nondestructive Evaluation System Reliability Assessment, from the U.S. Department of Defense
Handbook.
See also
Destructive testing
Inspection
Maintenance testing
Product certication
Quality control
Risk-based inspection
Failure analysis
Forensic engineering
Materials science
Predictive maintenance
Reliability engineering
Stress testing
Terahertz nondestructive evaluation
Magnetovision
Robotic Non-Destructive Testing
References
REFERENCES
[26] Charles Hellier (2003). Handbook of Nondestructive Evaluation. McGraw-Hill. p. 1.26. ISBN 0-07-028121-1.
EN 1330-2: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Terms common to the non-destructive testing methods (1998)
[28] EFNDT/SEC/P/05-006: Agreement for EFNDT multilateral recognition of NDT personnel certication schemes
(2005)
[29] http://www.nrcan-rncan.gc.ca/smm-mms/ndt-end/
The NDT Certifying Agency
index-eng.htm :
(CANMET-MTL)
[30] The relevant national standard for Canada is CAN/CGSB48.9712-2006 Qualication and Certication of NonDestructive Testing Personnel., which complies with the
requirements of ISO 9712:2005 and EN 473:2000.
[31] Charles Hellier (2003). Handbook of Nondestructive Evaluation. McGraw-Hill. p. 1.27. ISBN 0-07-028121-1.
[32] R. Marini and P. Ranos: "Current Issues in Qualication
and Certication of Non-Destructive Testing Personnel in
the Aerospace Industry", ECNDT 2006 - Th.3.6.5
[33] AIA-NAS-410: Aerospace Industries Association, National Aerospace Standard, NAS Certication and Qualication of Nondestructive Test Personnel
[34] ASTM E-1316: Standard Terminology for Nondestructive Examinations, The American Society for Testing and
Materials, in Volume 03.03 NDT, 1997
[35] T. Oldberg and R. Christensen (1999). Erratic Measure.
4 (5). NDT.net.
[36] T. Oldberg (2005). An Ethical Problem in the Statistics
of Defect Detection Test Reliability. 10 (5). NDT.net.
9.1
Bibliography
EN 1330-3: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Terms used in industrial radiographic testing (1997)
EN 1330-4: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Terms used in ultrasonic testing (2010)
EN 1330-7: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Terms used in magnetic particle testing
(2005)
EN 1330-8: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Terms used in leak tightness testing (1998)
EN 1330-9: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Terms used in acoustic emission testing
(2009)
EN 1330-10: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Terms used in visual testing (2003)
EN 1330-11: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Terms used in X-ray diraction
from polycrystalline and amorphous materials
(2007)
ISO 12706: Non-destructive testing. Penetrant testing. Vocabulary (2009)
ISO 12718: Non-destructive testing. Eddy current
testing. Vocabulary (2008)
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10.1
10.2
Images
10.3
Content license