Lab 10

Ray Tracing
Objective:
To use ray diagrams to investigate the reflection and refraction of visible light.
To apply Snells law to determine the index of refraction of a transparent material.

Equipment:

Universal light source, metal plate with 5 parallel slits

Drawing Board, paper, 30 cm ruler, protractor
Mirrors: plane, concave, convex
Lens sections: converging and diverging
Prisms: 90 prism and 60 prism
Safety:
Use standard laboratory safety precautions. Be careful handling glass objects. The metal housing of the
universal light source becomes hot to the touch.

10.1

Theory

The speed of light in vacuum is a constant value, c = 3.00 108 m/s. When light, which is an electromagnetic
wave, travels through a transparent medium, it spends some time interacting with the material, causing the charged
particles of the atom to oscillate and emit electromagnetic waves, so that its average speed v through the medium
is slower than c. The index of refraction n of the material is a number greater than 1 that gives the ratio of c to v.
n=

c
v

(10.1)

The index of refraction for vacuum is taken to be exactly 1; that of air is 1.005, but for most purposes assuming
it is 1 is sufficient; the index of refraction of water is 1.33. A typical value for glass is 1.5, though the value varies
from 1.45 to 1.75 depending on the type and purity of the glass.
111

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LAB 10. RAY TRACING

When a beam of light leaves one medium of index n1 where it travels with an average speed v1 and enters another transparent medium of index n2 , its average speed changes. The average speed in each medium is inversely
proportional to the index of refraction for the respective medium (v _ 1/n). The proportionality constant is, of
course, c. Therefore, we can write
c = n1 v 1 = n2 v 2

(10.2)

v1
n2
=
v2
n1

(10.3)

or

A normal (perpendicular) line N should be drawn to the interface between the two media at the point where
the ray strikes the interface. See Fig. 10.1. On each side of the interface, an angle is formed by the normal line and
the light ray. On the side of the interface that is in medium 1, this angle is called 1 . On the side of the interface
that is in medium 2, this angle is designated 2 . As long as 1 is nonzero, 1 and 2 will differ. The relationship
between the direction of the incident ray and the transmitted ray is expressed by Snells law (Eq. 10.5). The
phenomenon by which the direction of the light ray is changed as it passes from one transparent medium into
another is known as refraction.
sin 1
v1
n2
=
=
sin 2
v2
n1

(10.4)

n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2

(10.5)

or

1
n1

n2
2

Figure 10.1: Refraction of light is described by Snells law, Eq. 10.5. In this diagram, n1 > n2 and the light ray bends away
from the normal. Also, v2 > v1 .

We can see that whenever a ray of light passes from one medium into a second medium in which the average
speed of light is faster (e.g., when light passes from glass to air), the refracted ray is bent away from the normal.
Meanwhile, when light passes from one medium into another where the speed of light is slower, the refracted
ray is bent toward the normal. This can alternatively be stated that when going into a lower index material, light
bends away from the normal; when going into a higher index material, light bends toward the normal.

10.1. THEORY

113

In the situation where light is going from a higher to a lower index material, the angle of incidence can be
increased until the transmitted ray grazes along the surface of the interface. That is, 2 reaches 90 . At this point
no light is transmitted through medium 2 and the incident angle 1 is said to be at the critical angle. Any further
increase in the angle of incidence produces total internal reflection.
Another phenomenon that occurs at the interface between two media is reflection. When the second medium
is transparent, most of the light energy is transmitted through the interface into the second medium, but a small
amount is reflected back into the first medium. If the second medium is opaque, much or all of the light energy is
reflected.
Again, a normal line should be drawn to the interface at the point of incidence. See Fig. 10.2. The angle that
the incoming ray makes with the normal is known as the angle of incidence, i . The angle that the reflected ray
makes with the normal is known as the angle of reflection r . Their relationship to each other is described in the
law of reflection which states that the incident ray, normal line, and reflected ray all lie in the same plane, called
the incident plane, and, that
i = r

(10.6)

i r

Figure 10.2: The angle of incidence is equal in measure to the angle of reflection, and the incident ray, reflected ray, and
normal to the surface at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.

A spherical mirror is a mirror whose surface is a portion of a sphere. The center of curvature of a spherical
mirror is the center of the sphere from which it appears to be made. If the surface of a concave spherical mirror
is held facing a beam of parallel rays of light, the reflected rays will converge at a single point F . This point is
said to be the focal point F of the mirror. The focal length f of the mirror is the distance from the mirror to the
focal point. The principal axis of the mirror is the line that passes through the center or vertex of the mirror, the
focal point, and the center of curvature. The object distance do is the distance from the mirror to the object. The
image distance di is the distance from the mirror to the image.
Some - but not all - of the equations we use for mirrors and lenses, both concave and convex, are identical
and so depend on the proper use of a sign convention to distinguish among the different optical systems. Unfortunately, not every author uses the same sign convention, so be alert for differences from one textbook to another.
The most commonly used one will be used in this write-up.
For spherical mirrors (mirrors, not lenses!) we have
R
(10.7)
2
where f is the local length and R is the radius of curvature; R is positive when an incident ray of light encounters
a bulging (or positive) surface; R is negative when an incident ray of light encounters a hollow (or negative)
surface. The focal length of a convex mirror will turn out to be negative and the focal length of a concave mirror
will be positive.
f=

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LAB 10. RAY TRACING

The relationship between focal length of a mirror (or a lens) and the object distance do and the image distance
di is expressed in the mirror equation (also called the lens equation)
1
1
1
=
+
f
do
di

(10.8)

The sign convention that is applied for mirrors (and lenses) is that the distance to a real object or the distance
to a real image is positive while the distance to a virtual object or a virtual image is negative. A real image is
formed by light rays that actually pass through the location of the image. An image that appears to be located at
a certain point through which light rays do not pass, is a virtual image. A virtual object would be a virtual image
from one optical system that then serves as the object for a second optical system.
Lateral magnification m is defined as the ratio of image height hi to object height ho . A simple derivation
based on a ray drawing will show that
m=

hi
=
ho

di
do

(10.9)

The magnification equation (Eq. 10.9) applies to mirrors and lenses. A negative value for the magnification indicates that the image is inverted compared to the orientation of the object. A positive value indicates that the
image is upright compared to the object. A magnification whose absolute value is greater than one indicates that
the height of the image is taller than that of the object.
To use the mirror equation (Eq. 10.8), to find the image formed by a mirror, begin by making a ray diagram.
Sketch the mirror with its principal axis. Mark the focal point and place the object (usually a vertical arrow) on
the principal axis. There are three rays that can easily be drawn from the tip of the arrow, although any two of
them will intersect at the location of the tip of the image. The base of the image remains on the principal axis.
1. For a convex mirror, draw an incident ray from the object, parallel to the principal axis, until it hits the
mirror. The reflected ray will pass through the focal point. Another incident ray passes through the focal
point on its way to the mirror and reflects back parallel to the principal axis. The third ray strikes the mirror
at its vertex and reflects back at an equal angle on the opposite side of the principal axis. All three rays
should intersect at the location of a real image. If there is no intersection, a virtual image is formed. Using
dashed lines, extend the reflected rays back behind the mirror and look for the intersection there. See Figs.
10.3 and 10.4.
2. For a concave mirror, only a virtual image will be found. Since the focal point is behind the mirror, the
drawing instructions are slightly different. The first ray is drawn from the object parallel to the principal
axis until it hits the mirror. The reflected ray is drawn as if it were coming from the focal point. The second
incident ray is drawn from the object to the mirror as if it had passed through the focal point. The reflected
ray is drawn parallel to the principal axis. The third ray strikes the mirror at its vertex and reflects back at
an equal angle on the opposite side of the principal axis. The three reflected rays will never intersect on
the object side of the mirror; thus there is no real image. Using dashed lines, extend the reflected rays back
behind the mirror and find the location of the virtual image. See Fig. 10.5.
3. You are now ready to use the mirror equation to calculate the exact image distance. Apply the sign convention to f and do and calculate di . You can also use the magnification equation (Eq. 10.9) to determine
the height and orientation of the image (inverted or upright). Compare the calculated values with the ray
diagram.
A lens is a piece of glass (or other transparent material), which is used to either converge or diverge beams of
light. Each of the two sides of a lens is a curved surface (unless one side is planar). Each curved surface can be
thought of as a portion of a sphere, such that the center of curvature of the lens is the center of this hypothetical
sphere. If the surface is planar, then the radius of curvature is infinite. The principal axis of a lens is defined as the

10.1. THEORY

115

line joining the centers of curvature of the two surfaces of the lens. The principal focal point F of a converging
lens is the point at which incoming rays parallel to the principal axis converge. The focal point of a diverging
lens is the point from which incoming rays appear to diverge. A secondary focal point F 0 for either type lens is
located an equal distance from the center line of the lens on the opposite side from the principal focal point. The
focal length f of a thin lens is the distance from the center of the lens to the principal focus.

Object

C
Image

Figure 10.3: This ray diagram uses two of the principal rays and locates a real image in a concave mirror.

Object
C

F
Image

Figure 10.4: When the object is inside the focal point of a concave mirror, a virtual image is formed.

For thin lenses, we have the lensmakers equation,

1
= (n
f

1)(

1
R1

1
)
R2

(10.10)

where f is the focal length, n is the index of refraction of the medium the lens is made of, and R1 is the radius
of curvature of the side of the lens that the incident light first encounters, and R2 is the radius of curvature of
the second side of the lens that the light encounters, following the sign convention (the same as above) that R is
positive when an incident ray of light encounters a bulging (or positive) surface; R is negative when an incident
ray of light encounters a hollow (or negative) surface.
We will study ray diagrams for thin lenses in more detail in the next experiment.

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LAB 10. RAY TRACING

Object

Image
F

Figure 10.5: This ray diagram locates the virtual image formed by a convex mirror.

Figure 10.6: Setting up the light source to get 5 rays of light.

10.2

Procedure

10.2.1

Initial Setup

1. Be sure your lamp is focused. To focus it, shine its light on a distant wall. Holding the electrical cords
base, slide the aluminum plate back until the image of the coiled wire filament is distinct. The lamp is now
focused.
2. Arrange the apparatus so that five equally spaced narrow parallel rays of light cross the drawing board. This
is achieved by placing the metal grating on the end of drawing board closest to the lamp, as in Figure 10.6.

10.2.2

General Instructions

We will now examine the effects of several different optical systems, including various types of mirrors, lenses,
and prisms. Be sure you have several sheets of paper available; ask your instructor for more if you run out.
For each of the following optical systems, you will make a drawing; thus, each step will require a new sheet
of paper. Before you begin each step, place a new sheet of paper on the drawing board, and push the corners
underneath the metal brackets at the corners of the drawing board so that it is held securely, making it easier to
draw on.
For each step, you will need to trace the outline of the mirror, lens, or prism, as well as the paths of the five
light rays. Use a sharp pencil and a straight edge (ruler) to draw straight lines. Indicate the direction of the rays
by means of arrowheads along the path. Represent actual paths of all rays by solid lines, and virtual rays (lines
extended out from the actual paths) by dashed lines. Indicate the surfaces of the objects by solid lines. In addition
to these general directions, follow any other extra directions that the step may give.

10.2. PROCEDURE

10.2.3

117

Experimental Procedure

1. Plane Mirror Place the plane mirror somewhere on your paper such that it is oblique (at some angle not
parallel or perpendicular) to the incident light rays from your light source. Trace the mirror, the incident
rays, and the reflected rays. Slide the drawing board away from the light source. Hold a pencil in a vertical
position where one of the light rays originated. Look into the mirror and observe the image of the pencil.
Take a second pencil and attempt to place it where the image appears to be. Dot and label this spot. Remove
the mirror and the pencils. Draw normal lines to the surface of the mirror at the point where each incident
ray strikes the mirror. Using a protractor, measure the i and r for each ray. With a dashed line, extend the
reflected ray that corresponds to the incident ray on which you placed the vertical pencil, back behind the
mirror. Does it run through the spot where you located the image of the vertical pencil? Does each i have
the same measure as its corresponding r ?
2. Concave Mirror Turn the curved metal mirror so that the light is incident upon its hollow surface. Align
this concave mirror so that the middle incident light ray hits the mirror at its vertex and reflects back upon
itself. Trace the mirror, the five incident rays, and the five reflected rays. Locate and label the focal point
F of the mirror. Label the focal length f . Draw and label the principal axis. Locate the center of curvature
C as follows: draw any two chords and construct their perpendicular bisectors. The intersection of the two
perpendicular bisectors is the center of curvature of the mirror. Label the center of curvature. Measure
the length of the radius R of the sphere from which the mirror is formed and give it the appropriate sign.
Measure the focal length f and give it the appropriate sign. Do your measured values of f and R support
R
f=
?
2
3. Convex Mirror Turn the curved metal mirror around so that the light is incident upon its bulging surface.
Align this convex mirror such that the middle incident light ray hits the mirror at its vertex and reflects back
upon itself. Trace the mirror and the incident and reflected rays of light. Remove the mirror and, using
dashed lines, extend the reflected rays backwards (i.e., virtual rays!) to locate the virtual focal point of the
mirror. Label the focal point F and the focal length f . Draw and label the principal axis. Locate the center
of curvature C by constructing two perpendicular bisectors as described under Concave Mirror. Label the
center of curvature. Measure the length of the radius R of the sphere from which the mirror is formed and
give it the appropriate sign. Measure the focal length f and give it the appropriate sign. Do your measured
R
values of f and R support f =
?
2
4. Converging Lens Place the double convex lens on the paper such that the middle incident ray falls along
the principal axis of the lens. Trace the lens and the incident rays and the transmitted rays of light. Locate
and label the principal focal point F , the secondary focal point F 0 , the focal length f , and the principal
axis.
5. Diverging Lens Place the double concave lens on the paper such that the middle incident ray falls along
the principal axis of the lens. Trace the lens and the incident rays and the transmitted rays of light. Remove
the lens and, using dashed lines, extend the transmitted rays back to the virtual focal point. Locate and label
the principal focal point F , the secondary focal point F 0 , the focal length f , and the principal axis.
6. 90 Prism and Total Internal Reflection Set the 90 prism so that the long face (hypotenuse) is perpendicular to the incident light. Trace the prism. You should notice that no light leaves the two short faces of
the prism. Instead, there is total internal reflection. Trace one ray of light as it enters the prism through
the long face, reflects internally off the first short face, reflects internally off the second short face, and exits
through the long face, returning to the metal plate with the five slits. Using Snells law, set 2 to the grazing
angle of 90 and calculate the critical angle for light at a glass-air interface. Adjust the orientation of the
prism slightly, until you see the incident light approach the prism at the critical angle and just below it. Note
the transition from total internal reflection to transmission.

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LAB 10. RAY TRACING

Figure 10.7: A converging lens bends incoming parallel rays of light through the focal point.

7. 60 Prism, Dispersion, and Calculation of n Set the 60 prism on the paper so that the path of the rays
inside the prism is parallel to one side of the prism, which we will call the base. See Fig. 10.9. The incident
rays and transmitted rays should present a symmetrical picture with the first angle of incidence 1 equal in
measure to the final angle of transmission 4 . Trace the prism. You will notice that the emerging light is
dispersed into colors. Lift the edge of the paper to allow the colored light to project onto it. Trace one white
ray into the prism and trace the red ray and the violet ray out of the prism. Remove the prism and trace the
internal rays of red and violet light by connecting the incident and transmitted rays. Draw a normal line to
the first air-glass interface. Measure 1 and 2 on each side of this interface for the red light. Using Snells
law (Eq. 10.5), solve for the index of refraction of the prism for red light. Repeat the process for violet
light.

10.3

Additional Questions

In addition to the questions in the Experimental Procedure, answer the following questions.
1. A shark with a laser flashlight (scary, isnt it?) is pursuing a flying fish at night. Use Snells law (Eq. 10.5)
to find the critical angle of incidence to the flashlight beam at the air-water boundary. Assume n = 1.00 for
air and n = 1.33 for water.
2. An object that is 1.0 cm tall is placed on the principal axis of a concave mirror whose focal length is 15.0
cm. The base of the object is 25.0 cm from the vertex of the mirror. Make a ray diagram with two or three
rays that locate the image. Using the mirror equation (Eq. 10.8) and the magnification equation (Eq. 10.9),
and the proper sign convention, calculate the image distance and the magnification. Is the image real or
virtual? Is the image inverted or upright compared to the object? Is the image taller or shorter than the
object?
3. An object that is 1.0 cm tall is placed on the principal axis of a convex mirror whose focal length is 15.0
cm. The base of the object is 25.0 cm from the vertex of the mirror. Make a ray diagram with two or the
three rays that locate the image. Using the mirror equation (Eq. 10.8) and the magnification equation (Eq.
10.9), and the proper sign convention, calculate the image distance and the magnification. Is the image real
or virtual? Is the image inverted or upright compared to the object? Is the image taller or shorter than the
object?

10.3. ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS

119

Figure 10.8: Normally incident rays are totally internally reflected by a 90 prism.

B
1

C
2

Figure 10.9: The dispersion of white light into its colors can be observed with a 60 prism. Only one color is shown in this
diagram. The index of refraction is slightly different for each different wavelength.

120

LAB 10. RAY TRACING

4. An object that is 1.0 cm tall is placed on the principal axis of a concave mirror whose focal length is 15.0
cm. The base of the object is 10.0 cm from the vertex of the mirror. Make a ray diagram with two or three
rays that locate the image. Using the mirror equation (Eq. 10.8) and the magnification equation (Eq. 10.9),
and the proper sign convention, calculate the image distance and the magnification. Is the image real or
virtual? Is the image inverted or upright compared to the object? Is the image taller or shorter than the
object?
5. A thin lens is made of crown glass (n = 1.50). The radius of curvature for the first surface that an incident
light ray encounters is 25.0 cm and this surface is bulging. The second surface of the lens that light encounters is hollow and has a radius of curvature of 20.0 cm. Using the lensmakers equation (Eq. 10.10), and
the proper sign convention, calculate the focal length of this lens. Sketch a drawing of this lens, indicating
its principal axis, principal focal point F , secondary focal point F 0 , and focal length f .
6. Why is the reflector behind the bulb in a flashlight ordinarily a parabolic mirror and not a spherical mirror?
You may need to look up information about spherical aberration.