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Mechanical - Heat and Mass Transfer - Radiation
Radiation
Posted On : 19.09.2016 03:28 pm
Radiation is the energy transfer across a system boundary due to a T, by the mechanism of photon emission or electromagnetic wave
emission.
RADIATION :
BLACK BODY RADIATION:
Definition:
Radiation is the energy transfer across a system boundary due to a T, by the mechanism of photon emission or
electromagnetic wave emission.
Because the mechanism of transmission is photon emission, unlike conduction and convection, there need be
no intermediate matter to enable transmission.
The significance of this is that radiation will be the only mechanism for heat transfer whenever a vacuum is
present.
Electromagnetic Phenomena.
We are well acquainted with a wide range of electromagnetic phenomena in modern life. These phenomena
are sometimes thought of as wave phenomena and are, consequently, often described
in terms of electromagnetic wave length, . E shown below:
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1/18
10/26/2016 RADIATION Read Or Refer study Material lecturing Notes college school Book assignment reference wiki wikipedia description explanation brief detail
One aspect of electromagnetic radiation is that the related topics are more closely associated with optics and
electronics than with those normally found in mechanical engineering courses. Nevertheless, these are widely
encountered topics and the student is familiar with them through every day life experiences.
From a viewpoint of previously studied topics students, particularly those with a background in mechanical or
chemical engineering, will find the subject of Radiation Heat Transfer a little unusual. The physics
background differs fundamentally from that found in the areas of continuum mechanics. Much of the related
material is found in courses more closely identified with quantum physics or electrical engineering, i.e. Fields
and Waves. At this point, it is important for us to recognize that since the subject arises from a different area
of physics, it will be important that we study these concepts with extra care.
Stefan-Boltzman Law
Both Stefan and Boltzman were physicists; any student taking a course in quantum physics will
become well acquainted with Boltzmans work as he to the field. Both were contemporaries of Einstein
so we see that the subject is of fairly recent
vintage. (Recall that the basic equation for convection heat transfer is attributed to Newton)
where: Eb = Emissive Power, the gross energy emitted from an ideal surface per unit area, time.
-8 24
= Stefan Boltzman10W/mK constant, 5.67
Tabs = Absolute temperature of the emitting surface, K.

Take particular note of the fact that absolute temperatures are used in Radiation. It is suggested, as a matter of
good practice, to convert all temperatures to the absolute scale as an initial step in all radiation problems.
You will notice that the equation does not in the emissive power. The relationship between these terms is as
follows. Consider two infinite
plane surfaces, both facing one another. Both surfaces are ideal surfaces. One surface is found to be at
temperature, T1, the other at temperature, T2. Since both temperatures are at temperatures above absolute
zero, both will radiate energy as described by the Stefan-Boltzman law. The heat flux will be the net radiant
flow as given by:
Planks Law
2/18
Planks Law
While the Stefan-Boltzman law is useful for studying overall energy emissions, it does not allow
us to treat those interactions, which deal specifically with wavelength, overcome by another of the modern
physicists, Max Plank, who developed a relationship for wave-based emissions.
We
havent yet defined the b.MonochromaticAnimplicitdefinitionis Emi
provided by the following equation:
We may view this equation graphically as follows:
A definition of monochromatic Emissive Power would be obtained by differentiating the integral equation:
The
actual form of Planks law is:
Where: h, co, k are all parameters from quantum physics. We need not worry about their precise definition
here.
3/18
here.
This equation may be solved at any T, to give the value of the monochromatic emissivity at that
that condition. Alternatively, the function may be substituted into the integral
to find the Emissive power for any temperature. While performing this integral by hand is difficult, students
may readily evaluate the integral through one of several computer programs, i.e. MathCad, Maple,
Mathmatica, etc.
Emission Over Specific Wave Length Bands

Consider the problem of designing a tanning machine. As a part of the machine, we will need to design a very
powerful incandescent light source. We may wish to know how much energy is being emitted over the
ultraviolet band (10-4 to 0.4 m), known to be particularly dangerous.
With a computer available, evaluation of this integral is rather trivial. Alternatively, the text books provide a
table of integrals. The format used is as follows:
Referring to such tables, we see the last two functions listed in the second column. In the first column is
aT. Thisparameter,isfoundbytakingthe product of the absolute temperature of
the emitting surface, T, and the upper limit incandescent bulb is designed to operate at a temperature of
2000K. Reading from the table:
.,
This is the fraction of the total energy emitted which falls within the IR band. To find the absolute energy
emitted multiply this value times the total energy emitted:
Solar Radiation
4/18
Solar Radiation
The magnitude of the energy leaving the Sun varies with time and is closely associated with such factors as
solar flares and sunspots. Nevertheless, we often choose to work with an average value. The energy leaving
the sun is emitted outward in all directions so that at any particular distance from the Sun we may imagine the
energy being dispersed over an imaginary spherical area. Because this area increases with the distance
squared, the solar flux also decreases with the distance squared. At the average distance between Earth and
Sun this heat flux is 1353 W/m2, so that the average heat flux on any object in Earth orbit is found as:
Where Sc = Solar Constant, 1353 W/m2

f = correction factor for eccentricity in Earth Orbit, (0.97<f<1.03)
= Angle of surface from normal to Sun.
Because of reflection and absorption in the reduced at ground level. Nevertheless, this value gives us some
opportunity to estimate the
potential for using solar energy, such as in photovoltaic cells.
Some Definitions
In the previous section we introduced the Stefan-Boltzman Equation to describe radiation from an ideal
surface.
This equation provides a method of determining the total energy leaving a surface, but gives no indication of
the direction in which it travels. As we continue our study, we will want to be able to calculate how heat is
distributed among various objects.
For this purpose, we will introduce the radiation intensity, I, defined as the energy emitted per unit area, per
unit time, per unit solid angle. Before writing an equation for this new property, we will need to define some
of the terms we will be using.
Angles and Arc Length

We are well accustomed to thinking of an angle as a two dimensional object. It may be used to find an arc
length:
5/18
Solid Angle
We generalize the idea of an angle and an arc length to three dimensions and define a solid
angle, , which like the standard angle has n the radius squared will have dimensions of length squared, or
area, and will have the magnitude of the encompassed area.
Projected Area
The area, dA1, as seen from the prospective o to the surface, will appear somewhattermed thesmaller
projected area.
Intensity
The ideal intensity, Ib, may now be defined as the energy emitted from an ideal body, per unit projected area,
per unit time, per unit solid angle.
Spherical Geometry
6/18
Since any surface will emit radiation outward in all directions above the surface, the spherical coordinate
system provides a convenient tool for analysis. The three basic coordinates shown are
R,
, and , representing the radial, azimuth
In general dA1 will correspond to the emitting surface or the source. The surface dA2 will correspond to the
receiving surface or the target. Note that the area proscribed on the hemisphere, dA2 , may be written as:
Recalling the definition of the solid angle,

dA = R2d
we find that:
d
=sin2R dd
Real Surfaces
Thus far we have spoken of ideal surfaces, i.e. those that emit energy according to the Stefan-Boltzman law:
Real surfaces have emissive powers, E, which are somewhat less than that obtained theoretically
by
Boltzman. To account for this reduction, w
so that the emissive power from any real surface is given by:
7/18
Receiving Properties
Targets receive radiation in one of three ways; they absorption, reflection or transmission. To account for
these characteristics, we introduce three additional properties:
Absorptivity, , the fraction of incident r
Reflectivity, , the fraction of incident r
Transmissivity,onofincident radiation, thetransmittedfracti.
We see, from Conservation of Energy, that:
In
+ + = 1
this course, we will deal with only opaque
+ = 1
Opaque Surfaces
SHAPE FACTOR:
Net Exchange Between Surfaces
8/18
Net Energy Leaving a Surface
ELECTRICAL ANALOGY :
Electrical Analogy for Radiation

9/18
We may develop an electrical analogy for radiation, similar to that produced for conduction. The two
analogies should not be mixed: they have different dimensions on the potential differences, resistance and
current flows.
RADIATION SHIELDS ;
Insulated surfaces. In steady state heat transfer, a surface cannot receive net energy if it is insulated. Because
the energy cannot be stored by a surface in steady state, all energy must be re-radiated back into the
enclosure. Insulated surfaces are often termed as re-radiating surfaces.
Electrically cannot flow through a battery if it is not grounded.

Surface 3 is not grounded so that the battery and surface resistance serve no purpose and are removed from
the drawing.
Black surfaces: A black, or ideal surface,
In this case the nodal Radiosity and emissive power will be equal.
This result gives some insight into the physical meaning of a black surface. Ideal surfaces radiate at the
maximum possible level. Non-black surfaces will have a reduced potential, somewhat like a battery with a
corroded terminal. They therefore have a reduced potential to cause heat/current flow.
Largeces: Surfacessurfahaving a large surface area will behave as black surfaces, irrespective of the
10/18
Largeces: Surfacessurfahaving a large surface area will behave as black surfaces, irrespective of the
actual surface properties:
Physically, this corresponds to the characteristic of large surfaces that as they reflect energy, there is very
little chance that energy will strike the smaller surfaces; most of the energy is reflected back to another part of
the same large surface. After several partial absorptions most of the energy received is absorbed.
Consider the case of an object, 1, placed inside a large enclosure, 2. The system will consist of two objects, so
we proceed to construct a circuit with two radiosity nodes
11/18
In this example there are three junctions, so we will obtain three equations. This will allow us to solve for
three unknowns.
Radiation problems will generally be presented on one of two ways:

1. The surface net heat flow is given and the surface temperature is to be found.
2. The surface temperature is given and the net heat flow is to be found.
Returning for a moment to the coal grate furnace, let us assume that we know (a) the total heat being
produced by the coal bed, (b) the temperatures of the water walls and (c) the temperature of the super heater
sections.
Apply
Kirchoffs law about node 1, for the co
12/18
(Note how node 1, with a specified heat input, is handled differently than node 2, with a specified
temperature.
And for node 3:
The three equations must be solved simultaneously. Since they are each linear in J, matrix methods may be
used:
The matrix may be solved for the individual Radiosity. Once these are known, we return to the electrical
analogy to find the temperature of surface 1, and the heat flows to surfaces 2 and 3.
Surface 1: Find the coal bed temperature, given the heat flow:
Surface 2: Find the water wall heat input, given the water wall temperature:
Surface 3: (Similar to surface 2) Find the water wall heat input, given the water wall temperature:
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RADIATION Read or Refer Study Material ... F Detail Easy Solution What How Why Is

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10/26/2016 RADIATION Read Or Refer study Material lecturing Notes college school Book assignment reference wiki wikipedia

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Home (http://www.readorrefer.in) | ENGINEERING (http://www.readorrefer.in/menu/ENGINEERING_7/) | Radiation

= Stefan Boltzman10W/mK constant, 5.67

Tabs = Absolute temperature of the emitting surface, K.

havent yet defined the b.MonochromaticAnimplicitdefinitionis Emi

provided by the following equation:

We may view this equation graphically as follows:

actual form of Planks law is:

Emission Over Specific Wave Length Bands

Where Sc = Solar Constant, 1353 W/m2

= Angle of surface from normal to Sun.

Angles and Arc Length

, and , representing the radial, azimuth

Recalling the definition of the solid angle,

Boltzman. To account for this reduction, w

Absorptivity, , the fraction of incident r

Reflectivity, , the fraction of incident r

Transmissivity,onofincident radiation, thetransmittedfracti.

We see, from Conservation of Energy, that:

Net Energy Leaving a Surface

Electrical Analogy for Radiation

Electrically cannot flow through a battery if it is not grounded.

Black surfaces: A black, or ideal surface,

Radiation problems will generally be presented on one of two ways:

Kirchoffs law about node 1, for the co

OTHER SUGEST TOPIC

Solved Problems - Heat and Mass Transfer - Radiation (http://www.readorrefer.in/article/Solved-Problems---Heat-and-MassTransfer---Radiation_5533/)

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