Coastal Navigation Questions and Answers

1. Briefly outline the requirements of ECDIS.

ENC data: supplied by a Governments hydrographic office and updated

regularly in accordance with IHOs standard.

Colors/Symbols: Symbol size and appearance are specified and the user
should be able to select color schemes for displaying daylight, twilight and
night conditions.

OS position: ECDIS should show own ship position on the display.

Change Scale: The use of zoom-in/zoom-out should allow information to be

displayed using different scales.

Display Mode: The user should be able to select north-up/course-up display

and TM/RM.

Safety Depth/Contour: The user should be able to select a safety depth

whereby all soundings less than or equal to a required safety depth are
highlighted.

2. List four advantages and four disadvantages of Vector Charts that are
used with the ECDIS.
Advantages of Vector Charts

Chart information is in a layer which allows selective display of data.

It is possible to zoom-in without distorting the displayed data.

Charted objects may be interrogated to give information to the user.

Indications and alarms can be given when hazardous situation such as

crossing a safety contour occurs.

Objects may be shown using different symbols to those used on paper or

raster charts

Chart data may be shared with other equipment such as Radar and ARPA.

Disadvantages of Vector Charts

They are technically far more complex than raster charts.

They are more expensive and take a longer time to produce.

Worldwide coverage is unlikely to be achieved for many years if ever.

It is more difficult to ensure the quality and integrity of the displayed vector
data.

Training in the use of vector charts is likely to be more time consuming and
costly compared to that needed for raster charts.

3. Explain the main difference between a raster chart and a vector

chart.
Raster chart data is produced by scanning a paper chart. The process
produces an image that is an exact replica of the paper chart which
comprises of lines that are composed of a large number of colored
dots/pixels. This technique does not recognize individual objects or
soundings which limits the ability to conform to international
requirements/guidelines. However a vector overlay may be used to
overcome this deficiency.

Apart from the electronic chart, vector data may also be produced by
scanning a paper chart. However the raster image is then vectorized by
digital encoding individual charted objects and their attributes and storing
such data together with the objects geographical location in a database.

4. List the Advantages and Disadvantages of a Raster Chart.

Advantages of Raster Charts

User familiarity since they use the same symbols as paper charts.

They are exact copies of the paper charts with the same reliability and
integrity.

The user cannot inadvertently omit any navigational information from the
display.

Cost of production is less than their vector counterpart.

Wide availability of official raster charts.

By using vector overlay together with appropriate software, raster charts can
be used for all standard navigational tasks normally undertaken using paper
charts. They can also emulate some of the functions of an electronic chart
display and information systems.

Disadvantages of Raster Charts

The user cannot customize the display.

When using vector overlays the display may appear cluttered.

They cannot be interrogated without additional database having a common

reference system.

Unless data content is the same, more memory is required to store data when
compared to a vector chart.

5. List the different stages of passage planning and elaborate on what you
would do at each stage while planning a passage.
Appraisal
Planning
Execution
Monitoring
Appraisal is the process of gathering all information relevant to the
proposed voyage, including ascertaining risks and assessing its critical
areas. This information includes the following:
(i)
The tides
(ii)
Tidal streams
(iii) Under-keel allowances
(iv) Information from pilot books/sailing directions
(v)
Chart dangers (rocks, shallow water oil-rigs etc.)
(vi) Traffic schemes
(vii) Weather information (shipping forecasts)
(viii)
Possible areas of restricted visibility
(viv)
Any areas, which would involve an area of high traffic
density

Planning process, acting on the master's instructions. The detailed plan

should cover the whole voyage from berth to berth, and include all waters
where a pilot will be on board. The plan should be completed and include all
the relevant factors listed in the apprasial . Plot the intended voyage making
sure it is safe, and that the plan has been checked out by the master of the
vessel, use way points, parallel indexing , courses, distance to steam on each
leg, and by using all the information that you Appraised .All radar-

conspicuous objects and RACONs, which may be used in radar position fixing.
Any transit marks, clearing bearings or clearing ranges (radar) which may be
used to advantage. It is sometimes possible to use two conspicuous clearing
marks where a line drawn through them runs clear of natural dangers with
the appropriate margin of safety; if the vessel proceeds on the safe side of
this transit she will be clear of the danger. If no clearing marks are available,
a line or lines of bearing from a single object may be drawn at a desired safe
distance from the danger; provided the vessel remains in the safe segment, it
will be clear of the danger. Parallel index lines should also be drawn where
appropriate

Execution The master should find out how long his intended voyage should
take, making sure he has enough water and fuel for the voyage
He should take into account any special circumstances which may arise, such
as changes in weather conditions expected on the voyage
Any areas of high traffic density that would make him deviate from his course
(he should if possible make a plan to keep well clear of these areas)

Monitoring This is the act of continuously checking the vessel's progress

along the pre-planned track. The officer of the watch, whenever in any doubt
as to the position of the vessel or the manner in which the voyage is
proceeding, should immediately call the master and, if necessary, take
appropriate action for the safety of the vessel. Parallel Indexing should be
used when you are alongside any hazards to maintain a safe distance.
Advantage should be taken of all the navigational equipment with which the
vessel is fitted for position monitoring, bearing in mind the following points:

- (a) positions obtained by electronic positioning systems must be checked

regularly by visual bearings and transits whenever available;

- (b) visual fixes should, if possible, be based on at least three position lines;

- (c) transit marks, clearing bearings and clearing ranges (radar) can be of
great assistance;

(d) it is dangerous to rely solely on the output from a single positioning

system;

(e) the echo sounder provides a valuable check of depth at the plotted
position;

(f) buoys should not be used for position fixing but may be used for guidance
when shore marks are difficult to distinguish visually; in these circumstances
their positions should first be checked by other means;

(g) the charted positions of offshore installations should be checked against

the most recent navigational notices;

(h) the functioning and correct reading of the instruments used should be
checked;

(i) account must be taken of any system errors and the predicted accuracy of
positions displayed by electronic position fixing systems; and

(j) the frequency at which the position is to be fixed should be determined for
each section of the voyage

6. With the aid of suitable diagrams, define the following terms.

a. Difference in latitude: the angular difference between two latitudes which
is to be named North or South.
b. Mean latitude: the latitude of the point that is midway between two
parallel on the same or either side of the equator
c. Great Circle: the circle on a sphere the plane of which passes through the
centre of the sphere.
d. Spherical Triangle: A triangle formed by three spherical angles.

7. Describe the requirements of a chart which would be appropriate for

marine navigation.
The requirements for a chart appropriate for marine navigation:

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)

Parallels of latitude parallel to the Equator appear as straight lines

Meridians of longitude appear as straight lines parallel to each other
and at right angles to the parallels of latitude.
Rhumb lines are shown as straight lines.
Representation of coastal features.
Distance can be measured using the latitude scale.
Wrecks; shoals and other dangers to navigation are shown by the use
of symbols.
Navigational aids with their characteristics are shown.
Positions in latitude and longitude can be plotted.
Tidal stream and prevailing current information are available.

8. What information would you expect to find in a chart catalogue?

Information to be found in a chart catalogue is:
Diagrammatic form of the areas covered by each chart and includes the stock
number; portfolio and chart type reference and the chart number and scale. Charts
for special purpose can also be found

9. Describe the system of correcting and updating charts.

The system for correcting and updating charts is done by using the information
published in the Notice to mariners. Since navigation information periodically
changes and it is not practical to print charts as changes occur; then there is a
system for correcting charts.
Notices are distributed weekly and contain
corrections; deletions and additions relating to oceanic or coastal areas
worldwide. The Notice to Mariners is in three sections; corrections by chart;
publication and number. When a chart is corrected it must be noted in the
bottom left corner with the year and number of the Notice to Mariner.
10.
What is meant by the term dipping distance of a light?
Dipping Distance of a light: this is the distance at which a light disappears if the
observers height of eye is lowered by approximately a foot.
11.What are the 3 ranges of lights referred to in the admiralty list of lights
and fog signal?
a. Geographical range: maximum distance at which a light is visible to an
observer.
b. Luminous range: maximum range at which a light can be seen at a given
moment in time.
c. Nominal range: the range when the meteorological visibility is 10 miles.
12.
List two ways in which the deviation of the magnetic compass can be
checked.
a. Using transit bearing
b.
Horizontal sextant angle

b. Explain any one of the ways stated above.

Take the bearing of two objects in transit. Establish own ship position on the chart.
The vessel moves through each point (cardinal point) and the bearing of the transit
line noted. Any discrepancy between the compass bearing and the known charted
bearing is noted and hence deviation is obtained.
c. Explain when a navigator would use a gnomonic chart in conjunction
with a Mercator chart.
A Mercator chart may be used in conjunction with a gnomonic chart by:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Plotting on the gnomonic chart the positions for the track

Connect the points plotted on the gnomonic chart
Identify the relevant Mercator charts to be used
Transfer the positions identified on the gnomonic chart to the corresponding
Mercator charts.

d. When would a navigator use composite sailing?

Composite sailing would be used when there is limiting latitude.

13.Define the following terms:

a. Variation- this is the angular difference between the magnetic north and the
geographic north and depends on the observers location on the earth.
b. Great circle- this is a circle on the surface of the earth the plane of which
passes through the earths centre and divides the earth into two hemispheres.
c. Small circle is a circle on the surface of the earth, the plane of which does not
pass through the centre of the earth.
d. Departure- between two places is the distance in nautical miles between the
meridians passing through the two places, measured in an east to west
direction along a certain parallel of latitude.
e. Rhumb line- is a line which cuts all meridians at the same angle.
f. Nautical mile is the length of a meridian between two parallels of latitude
whose geographical latitudes differ by one minute (6067 feet)
g. Knot- is the unit of speed in which 1 knot is equal to 1 nautical mile per hour.
h. Statute mile- is not used in navigation but at times used in conversions and is
equal to 5280 feet.
i. Fix- may be defined as an intersection of position lines (2 or more) which
have been obtained by navigators approximately the same time.
j. Natural Scale of a chart is the ratio between a unit of length on the chart and
the number of such units which it represents on the earths surface.
14.
State the five types of charts used in navigation.
a. Ocean charts (small scale) which includes little detail and which are used for
ocean navigation.
b. Coastal charts (large scale) which include detailed information required for
coastal navigation.
c. Plan charts (very large scale) which include very detailed information of small
areas such as ports, rivers and estuaries.
d. Lattice charts which are used to plot positions obtained by electronic
navigational aids.
e. Special purpose charts not used to plot positions but which provide
navigational information such as regions of ice; routes and magnetic variation
15.State tow advantages and two disadvantages of a Mercator chart
Advantages:
Position, distance, and direction can all be easily determined.
True shape of features is maintained for small areas (it is conformal)
Disadvantages:
Distortion of true size of surface features increase with distance from the equator,
and;

Great circles appear as curved lines.

16.
List 20 things that are shown on a chart
1. Number of chart
2. Buildings
3. Title
4. TSS
5. Units of depth: beneath title
6. Soundings
7. Scale: at a stated latitude
8. Depth contours
9. Depths: level from which measured
10.Quality of bottom
11.Projection
12. Areas which cover & uncover
13.Authorities
14.Tidal stream diamonds
15.Cautions
16. Isogonals
17.Magnetic variation
18.Compass rose
19.Submarine exercise area
20.Lights & buoys
21.Wreck information
22. Natural features
23.Wrecks and danger
17.What are the five types of marks under the buoyage system?
1. Cardinal marks
2. Lateral marks
3. Safe water marks
4. Isolated danger marks
5. Special marks
18.
With the use of diagrams describe the full characteristics of the
marks mentioned in question 17.
Special marks- are used to mark areas of no navigational importance but have a
special nature. Special marks can be any shape, normally they will be spherical or
pillar with a cross shaped top mark. The light will be yellow and will have a different
sequence from the sequence of any white light.
Isolated danger marks- if there is a danger such as a rock or a wreck that has
deep water all around, it may be marked by an isolated danger mark. Frequently
these are beacons mounted directly on the danger. Isolated danger marks are
usually a pillar buoy or a pole beacon. All isolated danger marks have red and black
horizontal stripes with 2 black balls as the top mark. The light will always be white
with a sequence of 2 flashes.

Safe water marks- are used to mark the beginning of a channel or occasionally
the centre of a channel. Safe water buoys are either spherical or pillar buoys with a
red ball as the top mark. They will always be red and white with vertical stripes.
Light when fitted is white, isophase or occulting, or one long flash every 10 seconds
or Morse A.
Lateral marks- are positioned at the sides of channels. Under system A, if you are
heading in the direction of the arrow you will have green buoys to starboard and red
buoys to port. Port and starboard lateral marks are shaped differently. Starboard
buoys are conical or pointed and port buoys are can or square shaped. If the buoy
has a top mark, it will be the same shape as the buoy, conical for a starboard and
square for a port hand buoy. If the buoys are numbered they will be numbered from
seaward- starboard buoys have odd numbers and port hand buoys have even
numbers. Red buoys have red lights and green buoys have green lights.
Cardinal marks- these buoys get there name from the points of the compass,
north, south, east and west. All cardinal marks are pillar buoys so the shape alone
will not help to identify one, but the yop mark of a cardinal mark indicates its type.
Cardinal marks are yellow and black. Cardinal buoys that are lit have a white light
and the sequence relates to a clock face.

LATERAL MARKS

CARDINAL MARKS

19.
Broadly speaking charts are divided into five categories. Identify the
types of charts under each category. Give examples of such charts and
state their uses.
a. Ocean charts (small scale) which includes little detail and which are used for
ocean navigation.

b. Coastal charts (large scale) which include detailed information required for
coastal navigation.
c. Plan charts (very large scale) which include very detailed information of small
areas such as ports, rivers and estuaries.
d. Lattice charts which are used to plot positions obtained by electronic
navigational aids. Example- Omega Charts, Loran Charts
e. Special purpose charts not used to plot positions but which provide
navigational information such as regions of ice; routes and magnetic
variation. Example- isogonic charts.
20.
Identify at least 8 recommended hints on the use of charts which a
good OOW should try to attain.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
21.
State six reasons why it is necessary to make compass course
corrections.
22.

How frequent should the OOW obtain a compass error?

The OOW should obtain the compass error every watch and after every major
alteration of course.
23.
What methods are used to obtain compass errors?
The methods used to obtain the compass error are
a. Using transit bearing
b. Horizontal sextant angle
24.
The azimuth ring may cause inaccuracies in compass bearing. What
are the checks that the navigator should carry out in determining the
accuracy of compass bearing?
a. Ensure that the azimuth ring rests firmly on the compass.
b. Make sure that it is turning freely on the bowl
c. Ensure that the reflecting glass is visible
d. Watch carefully for the rolling motion of the vessel as rolling my cause
inaccuracies.
e. Make sure the centre line in the circle matches up with the conspicuous
target to get accurate bearing
f. If its night increase the dimmer switch on the compass bowl so the bearing
can be easily read
g. When taking a celestial body, the higher the altitude the less accurate the
bearing will be so try to take bearings of bodies with low altitude.

25.

Define the following terms as it relates to tides.

Mean Lower Low Water (MLLW) is the average height of the lower low
waters of each tidal day.
Mean Low Water (MLW) is the average height of all low waters at a given
place. About half of the low waters fall below it, and half above.
Mean Sea Level (MSL) is used as chart datum. This is the average height of
the surface of the sea for all stages of the tide over a 19 year period.
Mean High Water (MHW) is the average height of all high waters over a 19
year period.
Mean Higher High Water (MHHW) is the average height of the higher high
waters of each tidal day.
Spring Tide- is when the earth, sun and moon are in conjunction. The sun
and the moon pull together and high tides arehigher and the low tides are
lower. The range is large.
Neap Tides- is when the sun and the moon are pulling at right angles to
each other. Hight waters are not so high and low waters are not so low. The
range is small.
Chart Datum- is approximately the lowest level at which the tide falls.
Charted Depth is the depth of the water shown on the chart.
Tide is The vertical rise and fall of the surface of a body of water caused
primarily by the differences in gravitational attraction of the moon, and to a
lesser extent the sun, upon different parts of the earth.

26.
The appraisal process in preparing a passage plan covers a wide
area of the overall planning of a voyage. List at least 15 pieces of
navigational information which may be attained by the master and the
navigating officer in preparing the appraisal of a voyage.
1. Draught of the vessel
2. Radio and local warnings
3. Electronic navigation information systems
4. Routing information
5. Radio signal information
6. Tidal predictions (tide tables)
7. Chart catalogue (charts to be used during passage)
8. Sailing directions and pilot books
9. Distance tables
10.Tidal stream atlases

11.Light list
12.Notices to mariners
13.Mariners handbook
14.Load line chart
15.
climatic information
27.
What is the purpose of the AIS?
The purpose of the AIS is to
1.
2.
3.
4.

help identify vessels

to assist in target tracking
simplify information exchange
to provide additional information to assist with information exchange

28.What are some of the things the ship borne AIS must be able to do?
The ship borne AIS must be able to do the following:
1. continuously transmit ships own data to other vessels and VTS stations
2. continuously receive data of other vessels and VTS stations
3. Display data
29.
What type of information is transmitted by the AIS?
The information transmitted by the AIS is of three different types:
1. Fixed or static information which is entered into the AIS in installation and
needs only to be changed if the ship changes its name or undergoes a major
conversion from one ship type to another (name, call sign, MMSI, IMO #)
2. Dynamic information which is automatically updated from the ships sensors
connected to the AIS.
3. Voyage related data, which needs to be manually updated during the voyage.
30.
What information should be manually entered into the AIS at the
start of the voyage?
1. Ship draught
2. Any hazardous cargo
3. Ships destination and ETA
4. The correct navigational status
5. Any safety related short messages
31.
Define the following terms as they relate to tides:
1. Chart datum- the tidal datum to which soundings on a chart are referred. It is
usually taken to correspond to low water elevation of the tide.
2. Ebb current- the movement of a tidal current away from the shore or down a
tidal river or estuary.
3. Flood current- the movement of a tidal current toward the shore or up a tidal
river or estuary.
4. Tide- the periodic rise and fall of the water resulting from gravitational
interactions between the sun, moon and earth.