Assignment on optical networks

Q. a) Describe briefly about the features of 1st generation & 2nd generation of optical
networks.
Ans. 1) First Generation: In first generation networking, the electronics at the node must handle not
only all the data intended but also all the data that is being passed through that node on to the other nodes
in the network. If the latter data could be routed through in the optical domain, the burden on the
underlying electronics at the node would be significantly reduced. The data transfer was fully depend on
the electronics thus for the large data transfer the hanging problem is increased. Suppose the electronics
must process the data in blocks of 53 bytes each (this happen to be the block size to be asynchronous
transfer). For large data transfer like 100 mb/s to transfer the time spend 4.24s to process a block & for
10 GB/s more time will be spend for processing. Examples of first generation are SONET (Synchronous
optical network), SDH (Synchronous digital hierarchy).

2) Second Generation: The second generation of fiber-optic communication was developed for
commercial use in the early 1980s, operated at 1.3 m, and used InGaAsP semiconductor lasers. These early
systems were initially limited by multi-mode fiber dispersion, and in 1981 the single-mode fiber was
revealed to greatly improve system performance, however practical connectors capable of working with
single mode fiber proved difficult to develop. In 1984, they had already developed a fiber optic cable that
would help further their progress toward making fiber optic cables that would circle the globe. Canadian
service provider SaskTel had completed construction of what was then the worlds longest commercial fiber
optic network, which covered 3,268 km and linked 52 communities. By 1987, these systems were operating
at bit rates of up to 1.7 GB/s with repeater spacing up to 50 km. These can include Optical Add/Drop
Multiplexer (OADM) and Reconfigurable Optical Add/Drop Multiplexer (ROADM). Optical switch, to direct
light between ports without an optical-electrical-optical conversion Optical splitter, to send a signal down
different fiber paths. Circulator, to tie in other components, such as an OADM, Optical amplifier.

b) Explain WDM techniques in optical networks.

Ans. In fiber-optic communications, wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is a technology which
multiplexes a number of optical carrier signals onto a single optical fiber by using different wavelengths
(i.e., colors) of laser light. This technique enables bidirectional communications over one strand of fiber, as
well as multiplication of capacity.

The term wavelength-division multiplexing is commonly applied to an optical carrier (which is

typically described by its wavelength), whereas frequency-division multiplexing typically applies to a radio
carrier (which is more often described by frequency). Since wavelength and frequency are tied together
through a simple directly inverse relationship, in which the product of frequency and wavelength equals c
(the propagation speed of light), the two terms actually describe the same concept.

A WDM system uses a multiplexer at the transmitter to join the several signals together, and a
demultiplexer at the receiver to split them apart. With the right type of fiber it is possible to have a device
that does both simultaneously, and can function as an optical add-drop multiplexer. The optical filtering
devices used have conventionally been etalons (stable solid-state single-frequency FabryProt
interferometers in the form of thin-film-coated optical glass).

WDM systems are divided into different wavelength patterns, coarse (CWDM) and dense (DWDM).
Coarse WDM provides up to 16 channels across multiple transmission windows of silica fibers. Dense
wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) uses the C-Band(1530 nm-1560 nm) transmission window but
with denser channel spacing. Channel plans vary, but a typical DWDM system would use 40 channels at 100
GHz spacing or 80 channels with 50 GHz spacing. Some technologies are capable of 12.5 GHz spacing
(sometimes called ultra dense WDM).

Q. Describe optical network evaluation in detail.

Ans. As the optical network evolves, network planners must understand the dilemma in best utilizing the
optical network. On the one hand, access network require a transparent optical network that is a bit rate
and format independent. This would provide a flexibility and allow connection to the network directly with
the asynchronous transfer mode (ATM), Transmission control protocol/Internet protocol (TCP/IP), SONET,
or any other signal format without additional equipment cost. It also would allow wavelengths be added
and dropped completely optically without affecting the optical signal format.
Unfortunately this transparent model for the access of network falls completely apart when applied to the
metropolitan or long haul networks as the distances increases, carrier needs to maximize the capacity to
reduce the cost and allow any signal data rate onto the network would greatly increase the costs. Therein
lies the dilemma: network needs the flexibility to provide the verity of end user services without inefficiency
in the long haul network. The solution is the network gateway, which will integrate with existing optical
network elements.
Optical network evolve step by step by forming some technologies. Some of the technology are listed below
:1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

WDM (Wavelength division multiplexing )

OADM (Optical add/drop multiplexers)
Optical gateways
Optical bidirectional line switched rings
Optical cross connect
OADM(Optical add/drop multiplexer):-

Optical gateways:-

Q. Explain optical layered hierarchy in optical networks.

Ans. The architecture is composed of an underlying optical infrastructure. It is fully based on the OSI model
of layered communication.
The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI model) is a conceptual model that characterizes and
standardizes the communication functions of a telecommunication or computing system without regard to
their underlying internal structure and technology. Its goal is the interoperability of diverse communication
systems with standard protocols. The model partitions a communication system into abstraction layers. The
original version of the model defined seven layers.
Layer 1: Physical Layer
Layer 2: Data Link Layer
Layer 3: Network Layer
Layer 4: Transport Layer
Layer 5: Session Layer
Layer 6: Presentation Layer
Layer 7: Application Layer

1) PHYSICAL LAYER: - The physical layer defines the electrical and physical specifications of the data
connection. It defines the relationship between a device and a physical transmission medium (e.g.
fiber optical cable). It is responsible for transmission and reception of unstructured raw data in a
physical medium. It may define transmission mode as simplex, half duplex, and full duplex. It defines
the network topology as bus, mesh, or ring being some of the most common.
2) DATA LINK LAYER: - The data link layer provides node-to-node data transfera link between two
directly connected nodes. It detects and possibly corrects errors that may occur in the physical layer.
It, among other things, defines the protocol to establish and terminate a connection between two
physically connected devices. It also defines the protocol for flow control between them.
3) NETWORK LAYER: - The network layer provides the functional and procedural means of
transferring variable length data sequences (called datagrams) from one node to another connected
to the same network. It translates logical network address into physical machine address. A network
is a medium to which many nodes can be connected, on which every node has an address and which
permits nodes connected to it to transfer messages to other nodes connected to it by merely
providing the content of a message and the address of the destination node and letting the network
find the way to deliver the message to the destination node, possibly routing it through intermediate
nodes.
4) TRANSPORT LAYER: - The transport layer provides the functional and procedural means of
transferring variable-length data sequences from a source to a destination host via one or more
networks, while maintaining the quality of service functions. An example of a transport-layer
protocol in the standard Internet stack is Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), usually built on top
of the Internet Protocol (IP).
5) SESSION LAYER: - The session layer controls the dialogues (connections) between computers. It
establishes, manages and terminates the connections between the local and remote application.
The OSI model made this layer responsible for graceful close of sessions, which is a property of the
Transmission Control Protocol, and also for session checkpointing and recovery, which is not usually
used in the Internet Protocol Suite. The session layer is commonly implemented explicitly in
application environments that use remote procedure calls.
6) PRESENTATION LAYER: - The presentation layer establishes context between application-layer
entities, in which the application-layer entities may use different syntax and semantics if the
presentation service provides a mapping between them. If a mapping is available, presentation
service data units are encapsulated into session protocol data units, and passed down the protocol
stack.
7) APPLICATION LAYER: - The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which means
both the OSI application layer and the user interact directly with the software application. Such
application programs fall outside the scope of the OSI model. Application-layer functions typically
include identifying communication partners, determining resource availability, and synchronizing
communication.

Q.A) What are the elements of SONET/SDG infrastructure?

Ans. SONET (Synchronous optical network) is a standard for optical telecommunication transport.
It was formulated by the exchange carrier standards Association (ECSA) for the American national
standard institute (ANSI) which sets industry standards in US for telecommunication other and other
industries.
The comprehensive SONET/SDH standard is expected to provide the transport infrastructure for
worldwide telecommunication for at least next two or three decades. The elements of the SONET
standards are as followsTerminal Multiplexer
The path terminating element (PTE), an entry level path terminating terminal multiplexer, acts as a
concentrator of DS1s as well as other tributary signals. Its simplest deployment would involve two
terminal multiplexers linked by fiber with or without a regenerator in the link. This implementation
represents the simplest SONET link.
Regenerator
A regenerator is needed when, due to the long distance between multiplexers, the signal level in the
fiber becomes too low. The regenerator clocks itself off of the received signal and replaces the
Section Overhead bytes before re-transmitting the signal. The Line Overhead, payload, and Path
Overhead are not altered.
Add/Drop Multiplexer (ADM)
Although network elements (NEs) are compatible at the OC-N level, they may differ in features from
vendor to vendor. SONET does not restrict manufacturers to providing a single type of product, nor
require them to provide all types. For example, one vendor might offer an add/drop multiplexer with
access at DS1 only, whereas another might offer simultaneous access at DS1 and DS3 rates.
Wideband Digital Cross-Connects
A SONET cross-connect accepts various optical carrier rates, accesses the STS-1 signals, and switches
at this level. It is ideally used at a SONET hub. One major difference between a cross-connect and an
add-drop multiplexer is that a cross-connect may be used to interconnect a much larger number of
STS-1s.
SONET Signal

Bit Rate

SDH Signal

SONET Capacity

SDH Capacity

STS-1, OC-1

51.840 Mbps

STM-0

28 DS1s or 1 DS3

21 E1s

STS-3, OC-3

155.520 Mbps

STM-1

84 DS1s or
3 DS3s

63 E1s or 1 E4

STS-12, OC-12

622.080 Mbps

STM-4

336 DS1s or
12 DS3s

252 E1s or 4 E4s

STS-48, OC-48

2488.320 Mbps

STM-16

1344 DS1s or
48 DS3s

1008 E1s or
16 E4s

STS-192, OC-192

9953.280 Mbps

STM-64

5376 DS1s or
192 DS3s

4032 E1s or
64 E4s

It must be noted that although an SDH STM-1 has the same bit rate as the SONET STS-3, the two
signals contain different frame structures.
STM = Synchronous Transport Module (ITU-T)
STS = Synchronous Transfer Signal (ANSI)
OC = Optical Carrier (ANSI)

B) Explain briefly about IP layer architecture.

Ans. A set of protocols allowing communication across diverse networks is known as Transfer Control
Protocol TCP or Internet Protocol IP. The TCP/IP model is not same as OSI model. OSI is a seven-layered
standard, but TCP/IP is a four layered standard. The OSI model has been very influential in the growth and
development of TCP/IP standard, and that is why much OSI terminology is applied to TCP/IP. The following
figure compares the TCP/IP and OSI network models.

Q. Explain the principal working of FBG as Add/drop multiplexer.

Ans. The basic architecture of the OADM node presented consists of a FBG, an optical circulator, a power
combiner and an optical switch. At first, N multiplexed wavelengths are led to the Bragg grating through the
circulator, then the filtered signal is reflected and goes back to the circulator where it is removed. The remaining
channels are coupled with the added channel in a power combiner. The optical switch allows the selection of
the adddrop operation with the remotion and addition of a channel or a pass through operation, where the
removed channel is added again.

The fundamental principle behind the operation of an FBG is Fresnel reflection,where light traveling
between media of different refractive indices may both reflect and refract at the interface. The refractive
index will typically alternate over a defined length. The reflected wavelength, called the Bragg wavelength,
is defined by the relationship
, =2ne
Where ne is the effective refractive index of the grating in the fiber core and is the grating period. The
effective refractive index quantifies the velocity of propagating light as compared to its velocity in vacuum.
ne depends not only on the wavelength but also (for multimode waveguides) on the mode in which the
light propagates. For this reason, it is also called modal index.

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